ED 

BOOK 

IN  ENGUSH  COMPOS  ITtON 


LIBRARY 

OF  THE 


University  of  California. 

IFT    OF 

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GIFT    OF 


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Class 


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Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2007  with  funding  from 

IVIicrosoft  Corporation 


http://www.archive.org/details/enlargedpracticeOOhitcrich 


BOOKS   BY 

ALFRED  M.  HITCHCOCK 

of  the  Hartford  (Conn.)  Public  High 
School 

PRACTICE  BOOK  IN  ENG- 
LISH COMPOSITION,  226 
pp.     i2mo.     80  cents. 

ENLARGED  PRACTICE  BOOK 
IN  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION 
374  pp.     i2mo.    $1.00. 

WORDS  AND  SENTENCES 
89  pp.     i2mo.     35  cents. 

HENRY      U.OLT      AND     COMPANY 
PUBLISHERS  NEW    YORK 


ENLARGED 
PRACTICE-BOOK 

IN  ENGLISH    COMPOSITION 


By 


ALFRED    M.   HITCHCOCK 

Hartford  Public  High  School 


OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY 

OF 

;£UfFORj:*V^ 


NEW  YORK 

HENRY   HOLT  AND    COMPANY 

1910 


Copyright,  igo6,  1908,  1909, 

BY 

HENRY  HOLT  AND  COMPANY 


THE   QUINN    &   BODEN    CO.    PRESS 
RAHWAY,    N.    J. 


PREFACE 

This  Is  not  a  new  book,  but  an  enlargement  of 
the  Practice^Book,  first  published  in  1906. 

Part  I,  a  collection  of  tasks  in  simple  com.posi- 
tion,  remains  precisely  as  it  was.  Words  and  Sen- 
tences, published  a  year  ago  as  a  separate  volume, 
has  been  incorporated  as  Part  II.  It  provides  ex- 
ercises in  the  use  of  the  dictionary,  in  pronuncia- 
tion, spelling,  and  grammar.  Part  III,  containing 
much  new  material  and  some  old,  is  made  up  of  a 
large  number  of  exercises  designed  to  acquaint  the 
pupil  with  the  essentials  of  rhetoric.  Among  the 
new  chapters  in  this  section  will  be  found  two  de- 
voted to  the  paragraph  and  to  figures  of  speech. 
Part  IV  presents  an  elementary  survey  of  versifi- 
cation. 

The  key-note  is  still  to  be  found  in  the  words 
simplicity  and  practice.  Instead  of  elaborate  state- 
ments of  theories  and  principles,  a  few  plain  sug- 
gestions are  slipped  in  here  and  there,  cautions 
against  common  errors,  and  hints  in  regard  to  how 


o 


09703 


iv  PREFACE 

compositions  may  be  made  effective.  The  models 
used  are  for  the  most  part  but  schoolboy  and 
schoolgirl  products,  not  extracts  from  great  master- 
pieces. Over-instruction,  the  bane  of  modern  edu- 
cation, has  been  guarded  against;  the  pupil  is 
allowed  to  develop  naturally. 

The  reception  given  the  earlier  editions  seems 
fully  to  justify  the  unusual  emphasis  placed  upon 
drill  In  the  correct  use  of  words  and  the 
framing  of  sentences.  These  are  days  of  care- 
less, lawless  speech;  we  must  return  to  dictionary 
and  grammar.  Only  through  persistent  drill  In 
spelling,  punctuation,  and  the  building  of  sentences 
that  are  grammatically  and  rhetorically  good  can 
we  hope  to  train  our  young  people  to  speak  and 
write  with  correctness  and  skill. 

The  chapter  devoted  to  the  paragraph  is,  de- 
signedly, unusually  elementary  and  brief.  Expe- 
rienced teachers  are  beginning  to  question  the 
wisdom  of  confining  practice  largely  to  the  writ- 
ing of  single  paragraphs  carefully  constructed  in 
accordance  with  approved  patterns.  Better  final 
results.  It  Is  thought,  may  be  obtained  by  letting 
the  pupil,  especially  In  his  earlier  years,  express 
himself  somewhat  freely.  Individuality,  provided 
it  be  not  downright  lawless,  Is  better  than  artificial 
perfection.    Nice  sequence  In  thought,  so  necessary 


PREFACE  V 

in  paragraph  structure,  should  not  be  expected  of 
immature  minds. 

The  present  edition  of  the  Practice-Book  fur- 
nishes abundant  material  for  at  least  two  years  of 
study. 

A.  M.  H. 


CONTENTS 

A  Preliminary  Word  to  the  Pupil  . . . 


Page 
xi 


PART  1 

EXERCISES  IN  SIMPLE  COMPOSITION 
Chapter 

I.    Narration    3 

II.    Narration — Continued    12 

III.  Exposition  21 

IV.  Description   34 

V.    Description — Continued    40 

VI.    Argument 47 

VII.    Letter- writing  56 

VIII.    Letter-writing — Continued  67 

IX.     Letter- writing — Continued  79 

X.     Story-telling  86 

XI.    Miscellaneous  95 

PART  II 
DICTIONARY  AND  GRAMMAR 

XII.    The  Dictionary 109 

XIII.  Pronunciation  : 120 

XIV.  World-building  and  Spelling 128 

XV.    Sentence  Analysis  :  A  Review  of  Grammar  ...  150 

PART  III 

RHETORIC  IN  PRACTICE 

XVI.    Substitution  and  Combination 215 

XVII.    Clearness  Through  Unity   230 

XVIII.    Clearness  Through  Coherence  241 

vii 


vm 


CONTENTS 


Chapter  Page 

XIX.    Clearness  Through  Punctuation  260 

XX.    Brevity,  Precision,  and  Euphony  283 

XXI.    Variety  in  Sentence  Structure 293 

XXII.     Figures  of  Speech  305 

XXIII.    The  Paragraph  326 


PART  IV 

VERSIFICATION 

XXIV.    Versification 343 

APPENDIX 

Correcting  Phoof 369 

Precept  and  Criticism  373 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


TO   FACE 
PAGE 


Young  Handel 16 

Franklin's  Birthplace   i^ 

The  Old  Home  32 

The  Dining-room 33 

Rydal  Water  48 

Song  of  the  Lark    49 

The  Last  Muster  64 

Snow-bound    65 

The  Untraveled  Road 96 

The  Visit  112 


OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY 

OF 


A  PRELIMINARY  WORD  TO  THE 
PUPIL 

In  Scott's  Ivanhpe  when  the  mysterious  Black 
Knight  and  his  doughty  companions  are  about  to 
storm  Torqullstone  Castle,  they  prepare  a  chal- 
lenge, as  was  the  custom  seven  hundred  years  ago. 
The  archer  Locksley  signs  this  document  not  by 
writing  his  name  but  by  drawing  a  picture  of  an 
arrow.  The  jester  Wamba  uses  a  cock's  head  for 
his  mark,  and  a  rude  cross  suffices  for  Gurth  the 
swineherd.  Apparently,  of  all  the  attacking  party 
the  Black  Knight  alone  knows  how  to  write.  And 
when  the  challenge  Is  delivered  to  the  lord  of  the 
castle,  he  turns  It  this  way  and  that  as  if  It  were  a 
puzzle,  then  hands  It  to  a  fellow  Norman,  who 
promptly  confesses  that  he  too  can  neither  read 
nor  write.  Scott's  descriptions  may  not  be  liter- 
ally exact;  yet  doubtless  most  of  even  the  great 
men  of  the  Middle  Ages  lived,  fought,  and  died 
without  ever  learning  to  write. 

If  we  may  trust  a  recent  newspaper  Item,  from 
900,000  to  1,000,000  letters  are  mailed  at  the 
general  post-office  in  New  York  City  between  four 
in  the  afternoon  and  nine  at  night  every  business 
day.  Think,  then,  of  all  the  letters  written  daily 
in  all  the  world,  of  the  newspapers  and  the  mag- 

3d 


xii  A  PRELIMINARY  WORD 

azines  and  the  books,  of  the  pens  that  race  and  the 
typewriters  that  clatter  day  in  and  day  out  from 
one  end  of  the  year  to  the  other.  Times  have  in- 
deed changed. 

Occasionally  we  may  wish  that  times  had  not 
changed  so  much.  Spelling  books,  grammars,  and 
composition  manuals,  comparatively  recent  inven- 
tions, bring  little  joy.  When  struggling  to  put  on 
paper  a  few  simple  statements  which  would  be  easy 
enough  to  make  by  word  of  mouth,  we  may  vainly 
wish  we  had  been  born  centuries  ago  when  the 
battle-axe  was  mightier  than  the  pen.  Sometimes 
we  foolishly  try  to  persuade  ourselves  that  even  to- 
day it  is  possible  to  get  along  fairly  well  with  only 
very  slight  skill  in  expressing  ourselves.  Many,  it 
is  argued,  do  succeed  who  cannot  even  write  a  mod- 
erately correct  letter. 

But  such  reasoning  is  not  sound.  It  is  possible, 
of  course,  for  a  cripple  to  limp  from  San  Francisco 
to  New  Orleans,  but  he  had  better  travel  by  train, 
if  he  can.  It  may  be  possible,  under  some  circum- 
stances, to  succeed  in  life  without  skill  as  a  writer; 
but  those  who  have  so  succeeded  will  tell  you  that 
success  came  to  them  In  spite  of  this  drawback, 
not  because  of  It.  Again  and  again  have  they  lost 
time,  money,  pleasure,  opportunity  to  serve  others, 
because  of  their  Inability  to  express  themselves  with 
ease  and  force.  They  will  say  emphatically  that 
though  by  Itself  mere  ability  to  write  and  talk 
effectively  Is  of  no  value.  It  Is  a  most  necessary  aid, 
no  matter  what  one's  lot  In  life  may  be. 


A  PRELIMINARY  WORD  xiil 

Nor  Is  it  wise  to  assume  that  all  the  skill  needed 
may  be  acquired  without  special  training;  that 
through  daily  conversation,  through  reading  news- 
papers and  books,  and  through  writing  now  and 
then  a  letter  one  can  gain  all  the  power  that  is  nec- 
essary. Some  kinds  of  conversation,  some  kinds  of 
reading  and  letter-writing,  are  indeed  a  very  great 
help.  It  would  be  pleasant  if  they  were  the  only  aids 
necessary.  But  they  are  not.  The  football  player 
acquires  vim,  quickness,  ability  to  meet  emergency, 
not  by  playing  a  game  now  and  then,  but  through 
hard,  systematic  training.  The  West  Point  cadet 
cannot  get  along  without  "  setting-up  "  exercises  to 
give  him  full  control  of  his  body.  The  musician 
patiently  endures  "  five  finger "  exercises.  The 
sculptor,  the  artist,  the  craftsman,  all  have  to  learn 
through  long  practice  how  to  use  the  tools  with 
which  their  work  is  done.  And  the  writer  is  no 
exception ;  there  is  no  royal  road  for  him,  no  easy, 
always  pleasant  way  of  gaining  mastery.  If  we 
wish  to  be  able  to  make  known  our  wants,  able  to 
persuade  others  to  our  way  of  thinking;  if  we  wish 
to  share  with  others  what  we  have  seen  and  heard, 
what  we  have  thought  and  felt  and  imagined,  we 
must  first  learn  through  long,  patient  practice  how 
to  express  ourselves  readily  with  clearness  and 
force. 

This  is  a  practice-book.  It  contains,  first  and 
last,  many  hints  which  should  be  of  service  to  the 
untrained  writer  and  talker.  It  points  out  little 
errors  to  which  he  is  inclined,  and  suggests  ways 


xiV  A  PRELIMINARY  WORD 

of  avoiding  them.  It  contains  many  exercises, 
some  new,  some  centuries  old,  no  doubt,  but  all  de- 
signed to  furnish  profitable  drill.  It  is  based  on 
the  belief  that  we  grow  in  usefulness  and  happi- 
ness only  by  sharing  what  we  have  with  others,  that 
much  which  is  best  worth  sharing  can  be  passed 
about  only  through  the  medium  of  composition, 
and  that  to  succeed  in  composition,  as  in  any  other 
line  of  activity,  one  must  be  willing  to  endure  hard 
labor. 


PART  I 

EXERCISES  IN  SIMPLE  COMPOSITION 


OF  THE 
OF 


ENGLISH    COMPOSITION 

CHAPTER  I 

NARRATION 

Here  are  three  stories  which  you  may  have 
heard  many  times,  for  they  are  old  ones.  Read 
them  carefully  that  you  may  be  prepared  to  do 
the  tasks  assigned  on  a  later  page. 

An  Italian  nobleman  was  going  to  be  married,  and 
everybody  at  his  castle  was  busy  helping  to  get  ready  the 
marriage  feast.  There  was  one  great  drawback:  there 
had  been  such  dreadful  storms  at  sea  that  the  fishermen 
had  not  dared  to  venture  out,  and  consequently  there  was 
no  fish  to  be  had.  I  On  the  very  morning  of  the  feast,  how- 
ever, a  poor  fisherman  appeared  before  the  castle  gate 
with  a  large  turbot  on  his  back.  The  servants  were  so 
delighted  that  they  took  him  at  once  to  the  nobleman,  who, 
in  the  presence  of  his  guests,  bade  him  name  his  price  and 
it  should  be  paid.  To  the  surprise  of  all,  the  fisherman 
said,  "  My  price  is  one  hundred  lashes  on  my  bare  back, 
and  I  cannot  bate  a  single  stroke!  " 

"  Nonsense,"  said  the  nobleman,  "  you  are  joking. 
Come,  tell  us.     What  is  your  price?" 

The  fisherman  made  the  same  answer  as  before. 


4  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION 

"Well,"  said  the  nobleman,  "this  is  a  strange  jest; 
but  we  must  have  the  fish,  so  lay  the  lashes  on  lightly." 

After  fifty  strokes  had  been  given,  the  fisherman  cried, 
"  Stop !  I  have  a  partner  in  this  business.  He  must  have 
his  share." 

"What!"  cried  the  nobleman,  "are  there  two  such 
madmen  in  the  world?  What  is  his  name?  We  will 
send  for  him  at  once." 

"  You  have  not  far  to  go,"  answered  the  fisherman  ; 
"  he  is  your  own  porter.  He  would  not  let  me  in  till  I 
promised  to  give  half  of  whatever  I  got  for  the  turbot. 
I  want  to  keep  my  promise."! 

"Aha!"  said  the  noblAnan,  "bring  him  here  at 
once." 

The  porter  was  brought.  He  received  his  full  share 
of  the  lashes,  and  they  were  not  laid  on  lightly.  He  was 
then  turned  away  from  the  castle.  The  fisherman,  on 
the  other  hand,  had  an  excellent  dinner  set  before  him, 
and  was  sent  away  with  a  handsome  present.* 

A  Spaniard  was  riding  across  a  wide  and  uninhabited 
tract  of  country  in  South  America  and  had  yet  a  long 
distance  to  travel,  when  suddenly  his  horse  fell  lame.  He 
was  in  dismay,  for  he  saw  that  it  would  never  be  able  to 
carry  him  home.!  While  debating  what  to  do,  he  met 
an  Indian  riding  on  a  fine  fresh  horse;  whereupon  he 
asked  the  Indian  to  exchange.  This  the  Indian  refused 
to  do;  so  the  Spaniard  by  force  compelled  him  to  dis- 
mount, and  taking  the  fresh  animal  rode  away,  leaving 
the  lame  horse  for  the  Indian,  who  was  soon  left  far 
behind. 

*  This  story  and  the  two  following  are  taken,  by  permission,  from  Fables^ 
Anecdotes^  and  Stories ^  published  by  the  Boston  School  Supply  Co. 


NARRATION  5 

The  Indian  followed  the  tracks,  however,  until  he 
reached  a  town  where  he  found  the  Spaniard  and  sum- 
moned him  to  appear  before  a  judge.  When  accused  of 
the  theft,  the  Spaniard  swore  that  the  horse  was  his  own 
and  that  he  had  reared  it  from  a  colt.  Then  the  Indian 
besought  the  judge  to  send  for  the  horse.  This  was  done ; 
and  the  Indian,  throwing  his  cloak  over  the  horse's  head, 
said  to  the  judge,  "  This  man  swears  he  has  had  the  horse 
since  it  was  a  colt.  Let  him  therefore  tell  you  in  which 
of  its  eyes  it  is  blind." 

The  Spaniard,  not  daring  to  hesitate,  said  at  once, 
"  The  right  eye." 

"  Neither  the  right  eye  nor  the  left,"  said  the  Indian, 
taking  off  the  cloak.     "  He  is  not  blind  at  all.'f 

This  was  a  proof  so  strong  that  the  judge  at  once 
ordered  that  the  horse  be  restored  to  its  owner,  and  sen- 
tenced the  Spaniard  to  pay  a  heavy  fine. 

A  vizier  who  had  displeased  the  Sultan  was  condemned 
to  be  imprisoned  for  life  in  a  high  tower  from  which 
escape  seemed  impossible.  One  night  his  wife  came  to  the 
foot  of  the  tower,  weeping  bitterly  for  her  husband. 
When  he  heard  her,  and  knew  who  it  was,  he  called 
out  softly,  "  Do  not  weep,  for  I  may  yet  be  saved,  if 
you  will  do  as  I  bid  you.  Go  home,  and  bring  with  you 
when  you  come  again  a  live  black  beetle  and  a  little  butter. 
Bring  also  a  ball  of  fine  silk,  a  ball  of  thread,  a  ball  of 
stout  twine,  and  a  coil  of  strong  rope."  His  wife  went, 
and  quickly  returned  with  all  these  things. 

"  Now  touch  the  beetle's  head  with  butter,"  said  the 
vizier,  "  and  tie  one  end  of  the  silk  thread  round  his  body 
and  put  him  on  the  tower  directly  beneath  my  window." 

All  this  was  quickly  done.     The  beetle,  thinking  from 


6  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION 

the  smell  of  the  butter  that  there  must  be  a  store  of  it 
above,  crawled  straight  up  till  he  came  to  where  the 
vizier  stood.  In  this  way  the  prisoner  got  hold  of  one 
end  of  the  silk.  But  this  had  been  tied  to  the  thread,  and 
the  thread  to  the  stout  twine,  and  the  twine  to  the  rope. 
When  the  vizier  had  pulled  up  the  rope,  he  fastened  one 
end  of  it  inside  the  tower,  then  slid  down  to  the  ground, 
and  under  cover  of  darkness  fled. 


EXERCISE  1 
Written 

Putting  the  hook  aside,  retell  the  story  you  like 
best.     Give  it  an  appropriate  title. 

Do  not  try  to  recall  the  language  of  the-  book, 
yet  do  not  reject  any  phrase  which  you  may  re- 
member. The  main  thing  is  to  tell  the  story  in 
your  own  way,  bringing  out  the  point  as  clearly 
and  effectively  as  you  can.  The  first  draft  should 
be  made  with  moderate  care,  yet  with  little  atten- 
tion to  such  matters  as  punctuation.  When  revis- 
ing this  first  draft,  look  closely  at  each  sentence 
to  see  that  it  is  correct.  As  a  final  test  before 
making  a  neat  copy,  read  aloud  what  you  have 
written.  The  ear  is  a  good  critic,  often  detecting 
errors  which  the  eye  overlooks. 


NARRATION  7 

EXERCISE  2 

Written 

Read  carefully  the  two  stories  that  follow;  then, 
putting  the  hook  aside,  retell  one  of  them. 

This  task  is  more  difficult  than  the  first,  partly 
because  each  poem  is  little  more  than  a  bundle 
of  hints  suggesting  a  story  rather  than  telling  one, 
and  partly  because  if  you  write  in  a  natural  way 
you  will  use  prose  rather  than  poetry  and  must 
therefore  select  your  own  words.  You  cannot,  of 
course,  hope  to  do  as  well  as  the  poet  has  done; 
yet  you  can  make  your  version  of  the  story  effect- 
ive, perhaps  adding  details  supplied  by  the  imag- 
ination. Before  beginning,  turn  back  to  the  stories 
used  in  Exercise  i  and  study  them  for  a  few  min- 
utes. Notice  that  each  has  three  parts:  first  a 
sentence  or  two  explaining  circumstances,  then  the 
main  incident,  then  the  point — the  little  surprise 
at  the  end.  It  is  this  surprise  that  makes  a  story. 
And  it  is  well,  you  will  agree,  to  keep  the  reader 
in  suspense  as  long  as  possible.  Yet  unnecessary 
details  should  be  avoided,  that  the  story  may 
unfold  rapidly  and  not  grow  tiresome.  When  the 
surprise  has  come,  when  the  secret  has  been  re- 
vealed, the  narrative  should  be  brought  quickly  to 
a  close. 


ENGLISH  COMPOSITION 


The  Sad  Little  Lass* 

"  Why  sit  you  here,  my  lass  ?  "  said  he. 
"  I  came  to  see  the  king,"  said  she, — 
"  To  see  the  king  come  riding  by, 

While  all  the  eager  people  cry 
*  God  bless  the  king,  and  long  live  he ! ' 

And  therefore  sit  I  here,"  said  she. 

**  Why  do  you  weep,  my  lass  ?  "  said  he. 
"  Because  that  I  am  sad,"  said  she. 
"  For  when  the  king  came  riding  by, 

And  all  the  people  raised  a  cry, 

I  was  so  small  I  could  not  see ; 

And  therefore  do  I  weep/'  said  she. 

"  Then  weep  no  more,  my  lass!  "  said  he. 
"  And  pray,  good  sir,  why  not?  "  said  she. 
"  Lift  up  your  eyes  of  bonnie  blue. 

And  look  and  look  me  through  and  through; 

Nor  say  the  king  you  could  not  see. 

I  am  the  king,  my  lass !  "  said  he. 

Margaret  Johnson 


iNCroENT   OF   THE    FRENCH    CaMP 

You  know,  we  French  stormed  Ratisbon. 

A  mile  or  so  away, 
On  a  little  mound.  Napoleon 

Stood  on  our  storming-day, 

*  Reprinted  from  St.  Nicholas  magazine  by  permission  of  the  author  and  the 
Century  Publishing  Co. 


NARRATION 

With  neck  out-thrust,  you  fancy  how, 
Legs  wide,  arms  locked  behind, 

As  if  to  balance  the  prone  brow 
Oppressive  with  its  mind,    y 

Just  as  perchance  he  mused  "  My  plans 

That  soar,  to  earth  may  fall, 
Let  once  my  army-leader  Lannes 

Waver  at  yonder  wall  " — 
Out  'twixt  the  battery-smokes  there  flew 

A  rider,  bound  on  bound. 
Full-galloping;  nor  bridle  drew 

Until  he  reached  the  mound. 


Then  off  there  flung  in  smiling  joy, 

And  held  himself  erect 
By  just  his  horse's  mane,  a  boy; 

You  hardly  could  suspect — 
(So  tight  he  kept  his  lips  compressed, 

Scarce  any  blood  came  through) 
You  looked  twice  ere  you  saw  his  breast 

Was  all  but  shot  in  two. 

"  Well,"  cried  he,  "  Emperor,  by  God's  grace 

We've  got  you  Ratisbon! 
The  Marshal's  in  the  market-place. 

And  you'll  be  there  anon 
To  see  your  flag-bird  flap  his  vans 

Where  I,  to  heart's  desire, 
Perched  him !  "/  The  chief's  eye  flashed ;  his  plans 

Soared  up  again  like  fire. 


lo  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION 

The  chief's  eye  flashed ;  but  presently 

Softened  itself,  as  sheathes 
A  film  the  mother-eagle's  eye 

When  her  bruised  eaglet  breathes. 
"  You're  wounded !  "    "  Nay,"  the  soldier's  pride 

Touched  to  the  quick,  he  said; 
"  I'm  killed.  Sire!  f     And  his  chief  beside 

Smiling  the  boy  fell  dead. 

Robert  Browning 


v^  EXERCISE  3 

Written 

Retell  in  the  first  person  any  one  of  the  stories  in 
the  first  two  exercises,  imagining  that  you  are  the 
porter,  the  wicked  Spaniard,  Napoleon,  the  king 
who  comforted  the  little  lass,  or  the  beetle. 

What  advantage  is  there  in  telling  a  story  in 
the  first  person?  What  advantage  is  there  in  using 
the  third  person?  Conversation  gives  life  to  a 
narrative.  If  you  are  uncertain  how  conversation 
should  be  arranged,  and  how  capitals  and  quota- 
tion-marks are  used,  turn  to  page  268. 


EXERCISE  4 

Oral 

Come  to  class  prepared  to  tell  the  best  story  you 
can  find.    Consider  this  exercise  a  contest,  the  class 


NARRATION  n 

deciding  by  vote  at  the  end  of  the  hour  which  story- 
teller has  done  best. 

Good  anecdotes  appear  in  every  issue  of  the 
Youth's  Companion,  and  occasionally  one  may  be 
found  in  the  newspaper.  Better  than  these  are 
the  favorites  which  nearly  everybody  has  in  mind 
— stories  which  father  or  mother  tells  over  and 
over  again.  But  never  mind  the  source ;  the  main 
thing  is  to  get  a  good  story  and  tell  it  in  an  enter- 
taining way.  Be  careful  to  vary  the  sentence  form 
when  reporting  conversation.  Instead  of  begin- 
ning with  He  said,  divide  the  quoted  sentence  and 
slip  he  said  in  between  the  two  parts ;  or  invert  the 
words,  putting  said  he  at  the  close  of  the  sentence. 
Notice,  when  reading  books,  how  skillfully  the 
trained  story-teller  uses  these  two  words  and  sim- 
ilar expressions. 

EXERCISE  5 

Written 

Opposite  page  i6  is  a  picture  which  doubtless 
you  have  seen  before.  Perhaps  the  story  it  tells  is 
familiar  to  you,  or  to  your  instructor,  who  will  sup- 
ply you  with  a  hint  or  two.  If  not,  use  your 
imagination. 

Invent  a  story  to  match  the  picture,  following  in 
a  general  way  the  plan  used  by  Browning  in  his 
Incident  of  the  French  Camp.  Imagine  that  you 
are  young  Handel,  or  some  member  of  the  group 
standing  in  the  doorway. 


CHAPTER  II 

NARRATION  —  Continued 

The  tasks  In  Chapter  I  provide  practice  In  re- 
production ;  that  Is,  practice  In  retelling  with  only 
slight  changes  what  one  has  read  or  has  heard. 
The  Incidents  are  furnished  and,  except  In  the  last 
exercise,  the  language  Is  suggested.  The  exercises 
in  Chapter  II  are  a  little  more  difficult,  perhaps.  In 
that  you  are  asked  to  find  Incidents  for  yourselves, 
and  must  use  language  that  Is  all  your  own. 


EXERCISE  6 

Written 

Write  a  clear,  connected  account  of  something 
that  has  actually  happened  to  you,  something  which 
can  properly  be  called,  in  the  title  of  the  composi- 
tion, A  first  experience. 

Suggestions:  i.  My  first  party.  2.  My  first  serious 
accident.  3.  My  first  attempt  to  swim.  4.  The  first 
time  I  ever  ran  away.  5.  My  first  experience  with  a 
dentist.  6.  My  first  severe  punishment.  7.  My  first 
experience    as    a    cook.     8.  My    first    day    in    school. 

12 


NARRATION  13 

9.  My  first  shopping  expedition.     10.  My  first  football 
game. 


EXERCISE  7 

Oral 

^Criticise   the  school  composition  given   below, 
pointing  out  the  good  as  well  as  the  had. 

For  example,  has  the  writer  chosen  an  Inter- 
esting Incident,  one  that  Is  worth  narrating?  Do 
you  like  the  plan  of  the  composition,  the  Incident 
proper  coming  between  two  short  paragraphs,  one 
leading  up  to  the  story  and  one  away  from  it? 
Is  It  correct  to  write  he  with  two  other  boys  were 
coming  home?  What  other  expressions  do  you 
find  which  you  think  should  be  changed? 

Seeing  the  Dog  Swim 

My  sisters  and  I  are  fond  of  having  father  tell  us  stories 
on  Sunday  evenings.  These  stories  always  begin  this 
way:  "When  I  was  a  boy,  out  in  Ohio,"  etc.,  etc.  Not 
long  ago  he  told  us  this  one : 

Father  was  about  twelve  years  old.  One  spring  after- 
noon, when  it  was  just  beginning  to  get  a  little  warmer,  he 
with  two  other  boys  were  coming  home  in  a  light  wagon. 
They  had  been  staying  at  the  farm  of  the  boys'  father, 
a  Mr.  Hall,  about  twelve  miles  from  Columbus.  When 
half-way  home  they  came  to  what  is  called  Alum  Creek. 
It  was  about  one  hundred  feet  wide,  but  quite  shallow — 
perhaps  four  feet  deep.  There  was  a  bridge  across  but, 
boylike,  father  and  his  friends  preferred  fording  it. 


14  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION 

When  near  the  middle  of  the  stream,  one  of  the  boys 
suddenly  said,  *'  Let's  pitch  the  dog  in  and  see  him 
swim !  "  So  father  went  to  the  back  of  the  wagon,  and 
taking  the  dog  in  his  arms  threw  him  in  with  a  great 
splash.  The  horse,  which  had  been  drinking,  was  awfully 
frightened,  and  pranced,  pranced,  pranced,  over  to  the 
other  side  and  up  onto  the  road.  At  the  first  great  leap 
the  wagon  was  given  a  sudden  jerk,  and  this  pitched  father 
head  first  into  the  water. ,  At  the  same  jerk  the  wagon 
seat  tipped  over  backwards,  and  the  two  Halls  lay  roll- 
ing on  their  backs,  choking  with  laughter.  Father  picked 
himself  up  quickly,  for  the  water  was  yet  very  cold.  He 
chased  after  the  boys,  but  didn't  catch  up  to  them  till  on 
the  road.  He,  and  the  dog  too,  were  soaking  wet  from 
head  to  foot,  and  they  had  to  drive  six  miles  more,  fac- 
ing the  wind.  To  use  his  own  words,  he  "  was  nearly 
perished." 

For  a  long  time  after,  my  grandfather  had  a  way  of 
bringing  up  the  sad  incident  before  any  guests  who  might 
be  at  the  table,  when  stories  were  being  told.  ^'  George," 
he  would  ask  of  father,  "  what  was  that  story  about  the 
dog?  "  But  father  would  only  hang  his  head,  so  grand- 
father would  feel  obliged  to  tell  the  story. 


EXERCISE  8 

Written 

Write  a  short  composition  similar  to  the  one 
called  for  in  Exercise  6,  this  time  giving  not  your 
own  experience  hut  the  experience  of  some  one  else. 
Invent  an  appropriate  title. 


NARRATION  15 

Perhaps  reading  the  anecdote  given  In  Exer- 
cise 7  has  suggested  some  similar  one  which  you 
would  like  to  give.  Nearly  every  family  has  a 
score  or  more  of  such  stories  which  father,  mother, 
or  grandparents  tell  concerning  what  happened  to 
them  long  ago  when  they  were  young.  Tell  your 
favorite  of  all  these  "  fireside  reminiscences." 

When  reading  aloud  what  you  have  written,  are| 
you  sometimes  surprised  to  find  that  you  have  used 
some  word  over  and  over  again  till  the  repetition, 
is  unpleasant  to  the  ear?  For  example,  the  first v 
story  under  Exercise  i  contains  this  sentence: 
There  was  one  great  drawback:  there  had  been 
such  dreadful  storms  at  sea  that  the  fishermen  had 
not  dared  to  venture  out,  and  consequently  there 
was  no  fish  to  be  had.  The  repetition  Is  unpleas- 
ant, and  would  have  been  still  more  so  had  there- 
fore been  used  In  place  of  consequently.  The  word 
horse  is  used  somewhat  freely  In  the  second  story, 
though  the  narrator  has  tried  to  avoid  the  word 
by  employing  synonyms.  Such  repetition,  often 
difficult  to  avoid.  Is  not  a  serious  matter,  yet  It  Is 
one  that  the  careful  writer  tries  to  remedy  before 
making  a  final  copy  of  his  work.  Read  aloud 
some  of  the  compositions  you  have  written,  to  see 
if  you  are  repeating  words  unpleasantly.  See  Ex- 
ercise 191  on  page  289. 


i6  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION 

EXERCISE  9 
Written 

Write  a  composition ^  the  length  to  he  determined 
by  your  instructor,  to  which  can  appropriately  be 
given  the  title  A  day  of  my  life. 

There  are  days  and  days,  some  interesting, 
others  comparatively  humdrum.  You  may  select 
either  kind,  though  presumably  you  will  prefer  the 
'.former.  An  absolutely  faithful  record  of  every- 
i  thing  done  from  morning  till  night  would  contain 
^much  that  is  of  little  interest.  In  most  narratives 
the  writer  has  to  select  his  material,  picking  out 
the  important  things  and  passing  by  what  every 
one  takes  for  granted.  Do  not  say  that  on  arising 
in  the  morning  you  washed  your  face  and  hands 
and  dried  them  with  a  towel,  for  of  course  you  do 
that  every  morning.  It  is  not  necessary  to  say  that 
when  the  train  reached  your  station,  you  got  out ; 
for  of  course  you  would  get  out,  unless  for  some 
reason  you  forgot  to  do  so.  Items  of  that  sort  are 
unnecessary. 

Which  Is  the  better  expression — two  boys  and 
myself,  or  three  of  us  boys  ?    Is  it  polite  to  say  / 

and  my  friend? 

J 

! 


Copyrighted  by  the  Perry  Pictures  Company.     Used  by  permission 


NARRATION  17 

•  exercise  10 

Written 

Write  a  composition^  the  length  to  he  determined 
by  your  instructor,  to  which  can  be  properly  ap- 
plied one  of  the  following  titles:  A  narrow  escape, 
A  sad  accident,  Almost  a  catastrophe,  All  due  to 
carelessness. 

Let  this  be  a  truthful  account  of  something  you 
have  actually  witnessed.  In  some  respects  this 
is  the  most  difficult  task  you  have  been  given. 
Try  to  do  it  well.  Perhaps  it  will  be  wise  to 
keep  in  mind,  while  writing,  an  outline  like  the 
following : 

I  Time  and  place 

II  Circumstances  leading  to  the  exciting  mo- 
ment 
III  The  exciting  moment 

IV 

A  single  sentence  may  be  enough  for  the  first 
topic,  but  the  second  may  call  for  ten.  Be  sure 
that  every  circumstance  is  made  clear;  otherwise 
the  reader  will  become  confused,  not  seeing  things 
distinctly  but  guessing  at  them  and  sometimes 
guessing  wrong.  Failure  to  state  some  one  little 
particular  may  spoil  the  entire  narrative.  The 
third  topic,  however,  will  be  most  trying  of  all; 
for  at  exciting  moments  a  great  deal  happens,  the 
senses  receive  many  Impressions,  and  the  emotions 
are  ever  changing.    Follow  the  chronological  order 


i8  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION 

If  possible;  that  is,  narrate  first  what  happened 
first,  second  what  happened  next,  and  so  on.  Can 
you  guess  what  the  fourth  topic  should  be?  Per- 
haps as  you  narrate  the  incident  no  fourth  topic 
will  be  necessary. 


EXERCISE  11 
Oral 

Criticise  the  following  hastily  written  school 
theme,  pointing  out  the  good  as  well  as  the  had. 

Is  the  composition  well  planned?  Do  you  miss 
any  details  necessary  for  a  clear  understanding  of 
things?  By  what  devices  does  the  writer  convey 
the  idea  of  excitement,  toward  the  end  of  the  nar- 
rative ?  If  asked  to  rewrite  the  composition,  what 
changes  should  you  make  ? 

An  Exciting  Contest 

The  track  was  fine  and  smooth,  without  much  dust, 
and  there  could  not  have  been  a  better  day  for  a  race. 
The  grandstand  was  crowded.  All  along  the  fence  lining 
the  track  were  hundreds  of  automobiles.  Behind  the 
grandstand  there  was  a  continuous  roar  from  the  big 
racers. 

A  race  had  just  been  finished  and  there  was  a  moment's 
pause.  Then  out  on  the  track  came  a  large  Peerless 
followed  by  a  small  White  steam.  The  Peerless  was  a 
sixty-horse-power  car  driven  by  the  well-known  Barney 
Oldfield,  while  the  White  was  a  smaller  car  of  about 


NARRATION  19 

fifteen  horse-power  driven  by  Webb  Jay,  also  well  known 
in  racing  circles.  Most  of  the  crowd  were  inclined  to 
laugh  at  the  White,  but  men  who  knew  more  were  of  a 
different  opinion. 

The  cars  were  on  the  line,  the  Peerless  making  a  noise 
like  ten  Gatling  guns,  the  White  making  the  peculiar 
hiss  due  to  the  fierceness  of  the  fire  under  her  boiler.  The 
signal  w^as  given,  and  the  cars  were  ofif,  each  striving 
for  the  inside  at  the  first  turn.  Great  clouds  of  dust 
rolled  up,  hiding  them  from  view  as  they  passed  the  first 
turn,  the  Peerless  leading.  It  seemed  but  a  second  or 
two  before  they  were  round  again.  As  they  turned  into 
the  home  stretch  all  you  could  hear  was  the  peculiar  hum 
of  the  wheels.  This,  as  they  drew  near,  grew  louder, 
and  as  they  got  opposite  there  was  a  very  great  noise,  a 
flying  of  dust — and  they  are  taking  the  next  turn.  Within 
a  minute  they  were  round  again,  plowing  through  the 
dust  which  had  not  had  time  to  settle. 

Four  times  they  went  round  the  course  at  that  fearful 
pace.  As  they  started  the  fifth,  the  people  went  wild 
with  excitement,  for  the  little  White  was  leading. 
Around  the  turn  they  go,  great  clouds  of  dust  rolling  up. 
Down  the  back  stretch  they  fly,  around  the  curve  at  the 
far  end  of  the  course,  and  turn  into  the  home  stretch^ 
The  excitement  is  intense.  On  come  the  cars  like  bat- 
tleships firing  all  their  guns.  The  White  is  gaining, 
gaining,  gaining  at  a  good  rate.  Nearer  and  nearer  they 
come.  The  White  draws  further  away  from  the  Peer- 
less. The  dust  is  so  thick  that  the  cars  can  hardly  be 
seen.  ;  There  is  a  final  rush  and  a  roar,  and  one  of  the 
most  exciting  races  ever  run  on  a  circular  track  is  fin- 
ished. ■   The  plucky  little  White  is  winner. 


20  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION 

EXERCISE  12 

Written 

Write  a  short  composition  to  which  you  can  give 
the  title  An  exciting  moment. 

This  may  be  a  bit  of  adventure,  a  critical  point 
in  some  game  or  contest,  or  an  experience  similar 
to  the  one  called  for  in  Exercise  lo.  Do  not 
waste  time  by  giving  too  many  preliminaries,  but 
come  quickly  to  the  exciting  moment.  Then  try 
the  effect  of  a  number  of  short  sentences;  often 
they  are  better  than  long  ones,  when  the  writer  is 
trying  to  convey  the  idea  that  much  is  happening 
all  at  once.  Try  using  the  present  tense,  but  be 
careful  not  to  mix  tenses. 


+ 


CHAPTER  III 
EXPOSITION 

Chapters  I  and  II  are  made  up  of  exercises  In 
narration,  a  form  of  composition  which  gives  an 
orderly  report  of  action.  A  story  is  a  narration. 
An  orderly  account  of  what  you  did  last  Saturday 
would  be  a  narration.  Any  composition,  long  or 
short,  which  gives  in  orderly  fashion  the  particu- 
lars of  an  event  or  a  series  of  events  is  a  narration. 
It  is  the  commonest,  though  not  necessarily  the 
simplest,  kind  of  composition  used  in  talking  and 
writing. 

One  secret  of  a  good  narrative  lies  In  the  word 
orderly.  Unless  particulars  are  given  in  proper 
order,  the  account  becomes  *'  all  mixed  up." 
Usually  it  is  best  to  follow  the  chronological  order, 
telling  first  what  happened  first,  second  what  hap- 
pened next,  and  so  on  to  the  end.  But  even 
though  orderly  a  narrative  Is  sometimes  faulty  be- 
cause Incomplete.  How  often  when  telling  a  story, 
especially  If  the  listener  be  a  child.  Is  one  Inter- 
rupted by  questions.  The  questions  come  because 
particulars  have  been  overlooked  which  are  quite 
necessary  for  a  clear  comprehension. 

Oftentimes  these  particulars  have  to  do  with 


aa  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION 

what  is  called  Exposition.  A  perfect  definition  of 
this  word  would  lead  us  into  deep  waters.  For 
the  present  it  is  enough  to  say  that  exposition 
means  almost  the  same  as  explanation.  We  use 
exposition  when  we  tell  how  we  did  a  certain  ex- 
ample in  arithmetic.  We  use  it  in  telling  how  ice 
cream  is  made,  why  some  birds  go  south  for  the 
winter,  what  makes  the  locomotive  puff,  or  why  we 
were  late  for  school.  This  paragraph  is  an  ex- 
ample of  exposition,  in  that  it  tries  to  explain  the 
meaning  of  a  word. 

Order  and  completeness  are  quite  as  essential 
in  exposition  as  in  narration.  Not  always  is  it 
possible  to  follow  a  chronological  order,  but  a  plan 
of  some  sort  is  desirable  lest  the  explanation  be- 
come confusing.  And  it  is  necessary  to  watch  lest 
some  important  detail  be  overlooked,  especially 
when  one  is  explaining  something  very  familiar  to 
himself  but  quite  unfamiliar  to  the  one  he  is  ad- 
dressing. Your  aunt,  though  learned  in  many 
ways,  probably  knows  but  little  about  boys'  games. 
If  explaining  to  her  how  squash  is  played,  it  would 
be  necessary  to  give  many  particulars  which  at  first 
might  seem  to  you  quite  unnecessary. 

The  tasks  which  follow  may  seem  simpler  than 
those  in  the  preceding  chapters,  but  in  reality  they 
are  more  difficult.  If  it  be  true  that  there  are  fifty 
who  "  take  in  "  all  that  they  witness  where  there 
are  but  twenty-five  who  are  able  to  record  In  an 
orderly  narrative  what  they  have  seen.  It  is  prob- 
ably  true   that   there   are   twenty-five  who   ^'  see 


EXPOSITION  23 

through  "  things  where  there  Is  one  who  has  the 
ability  to  explain  to  others  what  he  has  seen 
through.     Clear  minds  are  rare. 


•  EXERCISE  13 
Oral  and  Written 

Write  answers  to  as  many  of  the  following 
questions  as  you  can  in  the  time  allotted,  and  come 
to  class  prepared  to  answer  orally  several  more. 

Do  not  attempt  too  much.  You  will  do  well 
If  you  succeed  In  giving  clear,  complete  answers  to 
three  or  four  questions.  Write  as  If  to  one  who 
does  not  grasp  things  easily  and  must  have  every- 
thing explained  very  clearly  and  In  simple  lan- 
guage. When  convenient,  let  the  first  sentence  of 
an  answer  include  the  wording  of  the  question.  If 
several  reasons  are  advanced,  perhaps  It  Is  well  to 
begin  with  the  simplest,  the  most  obvious. 

Probably  In  doing  this  task  and  others  soon  to 
follow  you  will  use  somewhat  frequently  sentences 
containing  enumerations.  On  page  267  are  ex- 
amples showing  how  such  sentences  should  be 
punctuated. 

I.  Why  do  birds  have  bills  instead  of  teeth?  2.  What 
advantage  is  there  in  using  a  "  float"  when  fishing?  3. 
Why  is  the  baseball  made  spherical,  the  football  sphe- 
roidal? 4.  What  things  affect  the  climate  of  a  place? 
5.  Why  are  story  books  illustrated?     6.  Why  does  not 


24  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION 

the  pond  begin  to  freeze  at  the  bottom?  7.  Of  what 
use  are  city  parks?  8.  What  causes  tides?  9.  Why  is 
football  condemned  by  so  many?  10.  Why  is  a  flash  of 
lightning  followed  by  thunder?  11.  What  causes  day 
and  night?  12.  Why  do  so  many  rivers  flow  by  large 
cities?  13.  Why  are  so  many  pupils  late  to  school?  14. 
Why  are  the  ball  bat  and  the  tennis  racquet  so  different 
in  shape?  15.  How  do  boys'  books  differ  from  the  books 
girls  enjoy  reading?  16.  Why  do  so  many  foreigners 
come  to  our  country? 


^     EXERCISE  14 

Oral  or  Written 

Ability  to  make  things  clear  often  receives  a 
severe  test  when  one  Is  unexpectedly  asked  to  direct 
a  stranger  on  his  way.  Possibly  all  of  us  know 
how  unpleasant  the  feeling  is  which  comes  when,  a 
few  minutes  too  late,  It  flashes  across  us  that  we 
have  carelessly  misdirected  some  one.  No  doubt 
all  of  us  have  ourselves  been  misdirected  and  know 
what  it  means  to  tramp  a  weary  mile  or  two  simply 
because  some  one  has  been  careless.  What  respect 
we  have  for  the  clear-headed  farmer  who  oblig- 
ingly stops  his  horses  and  gives  directions  as  unmis- 
takable as  his  furrow  is  straight,  not  forgetting 
distances,  points  of  compass,  the  noticeable  objects 
along  the  way.  Possibly  he  traces  a  rude  map  of 
the  region,  marking  out  in  the  sand  with  the  butt 
of  his  whip  each  road  and  crossroad.      At  any 


EXPOSITION  25 

rate,  he  makes  the  way  clear  before  he  returns  to 
his  plowing. 

Give  brief  hut  clear  directions  for  finding  four 
or  five  places  suggested  by  the  list  below.  Write 
as  if  to  one  unacquainted  with  your  town. 

I.  A  certain  pool  in  a  trout  stream.  2.  A  certain 
counter  in  a  department  store.  3.  The  nearest  fire-alarm 
box.  4.  A  hollow  tree  In  which  you  have  hidden  your 
rifle.  5.  A  place  where  arbutus,  or  some  other  favorite 
wild  flower,  grows.  6.  Your  doctor's  office.  7.  The 
railroad  station.     8.  A  good  restaurant. 


EXERCISE  15 

Written 

Give  careful  directions  for  making  something  in 
the  following  list.  Select^  if  possible,  something 
you  yourself  have  made. 

I.  A  work-bench.  2.  A  fancy  lamp-shade.  3.  A 
cornstalk  fiddle.  4.  Pop-corn  balls.  5.  An  ice-boat.  6. 
A  log  cabin.  7.  Coffee.  8.  A  camp  stove.  9.  A  win- 
dow-garden. 10.  A  magic  lantern.  11.  A  catamaran. 
12.  Maple  sugar.  13.  A  water-wheel.  14.  Butter.  15. 
A  willow  whistle.  16.  A  double  ripper.  17.  A  bead 
chain.  18.  A  raft.  ig.  Apple  dumplings.  20.  An  aqua- 
rium. 21.  Ice  cream.  22.  A  water  telescope.  23.  A 
toboggan-slide.  24.  A  cosey  corner.  25.  A  balloon.  26. 
A  tree-top  house.  27.  A  pretty  apron.  28.  A  canoe.  29. 
A  beehive. 


26  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION 

Try  to  Imagine  what  mistakes  a  novice  might 
make  In  following  your  directions,  and  warn 
against  them.  Tell  what  should  not  be  done,  as 
well  as  what  should  be  done.  Even  though  you 
have  little  skill  In  drawing,  try  to  make  clear  your 
plans  by  means  of  rough  Illustrations.  The  eye 
may  see  at  a  glance  something  which  would  be  dif- 
ficult to  Indicate  even  by  writing  a  long  paragraph. 


EXERCISE  16 

Written 

Explain  how  some  simple  instrument,  contri- 
vance, or  machine  does  its  work.  Select,  if  you 
can,  from  the  following  list. 

I.  A  grindstone.  2.  A  nutmeg-grater.  3.  A  thermo- 
stat. 4.  A  churn.  5.  A  compass.  6.  A  mouse-trap. 
7.  An  ash-sifter.  8.  A  fountain  pen.  9.  A  spirit-level. 
10.  A  horse-rake.  11.  An  egg-beater.  12.  A  thermom- 
eter. 13.  A  sun-dial.  14.  A  wrench.  15.  A  student- 
lamp.     16.  A  carpet-sweeper. 


EXERCISE  17 
Oral  or  Written 


^Ri 


\ead  carefully  the  following  composition,  then 
prepare  a  similar  account  telling  how  some  com- 
mon thing  is  made. 

This  task  will  take  you  to  some  mill  or  factory 


EXPOSITION  27 

and  will  call  for  accurate  observation.  Before  tell- 
ing how  a  machine  does  its  work,  it  is  often  neces- 
sary to  describe  it — tell  what  it  looks  like.  In  other 
words,  it  is  often  necessary  to  compare  that  which 
is  unfamiliar  with  what  is  well  known,  pointing  out 
similarities  and  differences.  Every  one  has  seen  a 
pair  of  shears ;  how  proper  it  was  for  Mr.  Frentz 
to  say  that  the  device  he  was  describing  was  little 
more  than  a  strong  pair  of  shears.  How  large  a 
machine?     As  large  as  a  sewing-machine. 

Nails  * 

The  making  of  nails  is  one  of  the  oldest  American,  as 
it  is  one  of  the  oldest  English,  industries;  but  in  Great 
Britain  the  greater  part  of  the  product  has  been  hand 
work,  in  America  machine  work. 

Of  modern  nails,  the  wire,  or  French,  nails,  and  the 
comm.on  cut  nails  are  made  in  quantities  which  far  ex- 
ceed all  other  kinds.  The  wire  nails  have  increased 
enormously  in  general  use  during  the  last  fifteen  or 
twenty  years,  but  there  are  still  many  purposes  for  which 
cut  nails  are  preferred. 

The  process  of  making  wire  nails  is  exceedingly  simple 
and  almost  wholly  automatic.  A  large  reel  or  spool  of 
wire  of  a  size  equal  to  that  of  the  shank  of  the  nail  to 
be  made  feeds  forward  at  each  revolution  of  the  machine 
a  piece  of  wire  equal  to  the  length  of  the  nail  and  a 
fraction  of  an  inch  more. 

This  is  seized  firmly  by  clamps,  which  straighten  while 

*  Reprinted  from  the  Youth's  Companion  by  permission  of  the  Perry 
Mason  Co. 


28  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION 

they  hold  ft,  and  at  the  same  time  a  pair  of  jaws  so  cut 
the  wire  as  to  leave  a  sharp  point  to  the  nail. 

Before  the  clamps  let  go  their  hold,  a  hammer,  the 
face  of  which  is  a  die,  strikes  the  other  end  of  the  wire  a 
sharp  blow,  which  forms  the  head. 

The  clamps  have  corrugated  surfaces,  not  merely  to 
hold  the  nail  more  securely,  but  to  impress  upon  it  a 
series  of  ridges  and  depressions,  which  make  it  harder  to 
draw  out  when  once  driven  home. 

The  making  of  cut  nails  is  less  automatic  and  much 
harder.  Any  one  who  has  seen  a  nail-maker  at  work  will 
understand  the  aptness  of  the  old  expression,  "  to  work 
like  a  nailer."  The  iron  for  cut  nails  is  first  rolled  into 
sheets,  the  thickness  of  which  is  equal  to  the  thickness  of 
the  nail.  It  is  then  cut  into  plates  as  wide  as  the  nail 
is  long,  and  of  such  length  as  a  man  can  handle  con- 
veniently— say  from  fifteen  to  twenty  inches. 

The  nail-cutting  machine  is  a  heavy,  compact  piece  of 
mechanism  not  much  larger  than  a  sewing-machine,  before 
which  the  nail-maker  sits  on  a  stool.  It  consists  of  but 
little  more  than  a  pair  of  shears  strong  enough  to  cut 
iron  three-eighths  of  an  inch  thick,  and  a  heading  hammer. 

Any  one  who  will  examine  a  cut  nail  will  find  that  the 
shank  tapers,  not  on  all  four  sides  from  the  head,  as  he 
may  have  supposed,  but  on  two  sides  only.  The  other 
two  sides  are  parallel.  It  is  the  neglect  to  notice  this  fact 
which  leads  so  many  persons  to  start  a  nail  into  wood  in 
a  way  which  splits  it. 

From  a  small  furnace  near  the  machine  the  nail-maker 
draws  a  plate  which  has  come  to  a  dull  red  heat.  Hold- 
ing this  by  means  of  pincers,  he  feeds  the  edge  farthest 
from  him  to  the  jaws  of  the  machine.  As  they  descend 
they  shear  a  tapering  strip  from  the  edge.     This  is  seized 


EXPOSITION  29 

by  clamps,  which  hold  it  just  long  enough  for  the  heading 
hammer  to  strike  the  blow  which  forms  the  head,  and 
then  drop  it. 

Now  if  the  nailer  were  simply  to  push  the  plate  for- 
ward again,  the  tapering  character  of  the  strip  which  is 
sliced  off  would  destroy  the  rectangular  shape  of  the 
plate,  and  the  nails  would  neither  be  of  a  length  nor  have 
square  heads  and  points.  To  obviate  this  difficulty,  the 
plate  must  be  turned  over  between  every  two  nails  that 
are  cut,  so  that  the  head  of  the  nail  will  come  alternately 
from  one  side  of  the  plate  and  from  the  other. 

This — and  it  is  the  principal  part  of  the  nailer's  work — 
is  done  with  a  simple  turn  of  the  wrist,  and  the  plate  is 
fed  forward  as  before.  As  the  machines  run  at  consider- 
able speed,  and  the  "  flop  "  must  be  accurately  timed  in 
order  that  the  end  of  the  plate  may  meet  the  shears  at 
the  right  moment  and  in  the  right  place^  the  difficulty 
and  the  tiresome  nature  of  a  nail-maker's  work  may  be 
imagined.  Some  idea  of  it  may  be  had  by  holding  the 
thick  end  of  a  shingle  in  a  pair  of  tongs  and  attempting 
so  to  turn  it  with  a  single  motion  of  the  wrist  that  alter- 
nate sides  will  lie  uppermost  on  a  table. 

A  good  nail-maker  will  make  from  two  to  four  flops — 
that  is,  will  cut  from  two  to  four  nails — a  second,  the 
smaller  nails,  of  course,  being  made  more  rapidly  than 
the  larger  ones.  As  the  plate  grows  cool  it  is  returned  to 
the  oven  to  be  reheated,  and  another  plate  takes  its  place. 

A  nail-maker's  hands  and  arms  always  show  the  char- 
acter of  his  work  by  the  tremendous  development  of  cer- 
tain special  muscles,  and  by  callouses  which  become  as 
hard  as  horn. 

The  common  names  of  nails — sixpenny,  eightpenny, 
tenpenny,  and  so  forth — are  believed  to  be  corruptions 


30  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION 

of  six-pound,  eight-pound,  and  ten-pound — names  given 
in  England  to  denote  the  weight  of  one  thousand  of  a 
given  kind  of  nails.  Sixpenny  and  eightpenny  was  an 
easy  step  from  "  six-pun'  "  and  "  eight-pun'." 

Edward  Williston  Frentz 


EXERCISE  18 

Oral 

Read  the  following  with  great  care,  that  you 
may  he  able  to  answer  questions  concerning  it  later 
on. 

How  TO  Pitch  a  Tent  * 

When  five  or  six  o'clock  draws  near,  begin  to  look 
about  you  for  a  good  level  dry  place^  elevated  some  few 
feet  above  the  surroundings.  Drop  your  pack  or  beach 
your  canoe.  Examine  the  location  carefully.  You  will 
want  two  trees  about  ten  feet  apart  from  which  to  sus- 
pend your  tent,  and  a  bit  of  flat  ground  underneath  them. 
Of  course  the  flat  ground  need  not  be  particularly  unen- 
cumbered by  brush  or  saplings,  so  the  combination  ought 
not  to  be  hard  to  discover.  Now  return  to  your  canoe. 
Do  not  unpack  the  tent. 

With  the  little  axe  clear  the  ground  thoroughly.  By 
bending  a  sapling  over  strongly  with  the  left  hand,  clip- 
ping sharply  at  the  strained  fibers,  and  then  bending  it 
as  strongly  the  other  way  to  repeat  the  axe  stroke  on 

*  Reprinted  from  T^e  Forest  by  permission  of  Messrs.  McClure,  Phillips,  & 
Company. 


EXPOSITION  31 

the  other  side,  you  will  find  that  treelets  of  even  two  or 
three  inches  diameter  can  be  felled  by  two  blows.  In 
a  very  few  moments  you  will  have  accomplished  a  hole 
in  the  forest,  and  your  two  supporting  trees  will  stand 
sentinel  at  either  end  of  a  most  respectable-looking  clear- 
ing.    Do  not  unpack  the  tent. 

Now,  although  the  ground  seems  free  of  all  but  unim- 
portant growths,  go  over  it  thoroughly  for  little  shrubs 
and  leaves.  They  look  soft  and  yielding,  but  are  often 
possessed  of  unexpectedly  abrasive  roots.  Besides,  they 
mask  the  face  of  the  ground.  When  you  have  finished 
pulling  them  up  by  the  roots,  you  will  find  that  your 
supposedly  level  plot  is  knobby  with  hummocks.  Stand 
directly  over  each  little  mound;  swing  the  back  of  your 
axe  vigorously  against  it,  adze-wise,  between  your  legs. 
Nine  times  out  of  ten  it  will  crumble,  and  the  tenth  time 
means  merely  a  root  to  cut  or  a  stone  to  pry  out.  At 
length  you  are  possessed  of  a  plot  of  clean,  fresh  earth, 
level  and  soft,  free  from  projections.  But  do  not  unpack 
your  tent. 

Lay  a  young  birch  or  maple  an  inch  or  so  in  diameter 
across  a  log.  Two  clips  will  produce  you  a  tent-peg. 
If  you  are  inexperienced,  and  cherish  memories  of  striped 
lawn  markees,  you  will  cut  them  about  six  inches  long. 
If  you  are  wise  and  old  and  gray  in  woods  experience, 
you  will  multiply  that  length  by  four.  Then  your  loops 
will  not  slip  off,  and  you  will  have  a  real  grip  on  mother 
earth,  than  which  nothing  can  be  more  desirable  in  the 
event  of  a  heavy  rain  and  wind  squall  about  midnight.  If 
your  axe  is  as  sharp  as  it  ought  to  be,  you  can  point  them 
more  neatly  by  holding  them  suspended  in  front  of  you 
while  you  snip  at  their  ends  with  the  axe,  than  by  resting 
them  against  a  solid  base.     Pile  them  together  at  the  edge 


32  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION 

of  the  clearing.     Cut  a  crotched  sapling  eight  or  ten  feet 
long.     Now  unpack  your  tent. 

In  a  wooded  country  you  will  not  take  the  time  to 
fool  with  tent-poles.  A  stout  line  run  through  the  eye- 
lets and  along  the  apex  will  string  it  successfully  between 
your  two  trees.  Draw  the  line  as  tight  as  possible,  but 
do  not  be  too  unhappy  if,  after  your  best  efforts,  it  still 
sags  a  little.  That  is  what  your  long  crotched  stick  is 
for.  Stake  out  your  four  corners.  If  you  get  them  in  a 
good  rectangle  and  in  such  relation  to  the  apex  as  to  form 
two  isosceles  triangles  of  the  ends,  your  tent  will  stand 
smoothly.  Therefore,  be  an  artist  and  do  it  right.  Once 
the  four  corners  are  well  placed,  the  rest  follows  nat- 
urally. Occasionally  in  the  North  Country  it  will  be 
found  that  the  soil  is  too  thin,  over  the  rocks,  to  grip  the 
tent-pegs.  In  that  case  drive  them  at  a  sharp  angle  as 
deep  as  they  will  go,  and  then  lay  a  large  flat  stone  across 
the  slant  of  them.  Thus  anchored,  you  will  ride  out  a 
gale.  Finally,  wedge  your  long  sapling  crotch  under  the 
line — outside  the  tent,  of  course — to  tighten  it.  Your 
shelter  is  up.  If  you  are  a  woodsman,  ten  or  fifteen 
minutes  has  sufficed  to  accomplish  all  this. 

The  Forest,  by  Stewart  White 

Are  Mr.  White's  directions  clear,  orderly,  com- 
plete? What  one  thing  above  all  others  does 
he  wish  to  impress  upon  the  reader?  How  does 
he  do  this?  How  many  things  does  he  warn 
the  reader  not  to  do?  Has  Mr.  White  used  you 
and  your  more  freely  than  was  necessary?  Try 
to  reconstruct  some  of  his  sentences,  omitting  these 
words.    Suggest  an  appropriate  title  for  each  para- 


EXPOSITION  33 

graph.     Put  a  plan  of  this  composition  on  the 
blackboard. 


EXERCISE  19 

Written 

Write  a  composition,  about  half  as  long  as  Mr, 
Whitens,  in  which  you  tell  how  to  do  something. 
Draw  from  your  own  experience,  yet  select  if  pos- 
sible from  the  list  which  follows. 

I.  How  to  mark  out  an  elliptical  flower-bed.  2.  How 
to  darn  stockings.  3.  How  to  get  up  an  amateur  circus. 
4.  How  to  build  a  fire  out  of  doors.  5.  How  to  remove 
stains  from  clothing.  6.  How  to  mark  out  a  tennis- 
court.  7.  How  to  clean  windows.  8.  How  to  locate  a 
bee-tree.  9.  How  to  make  hay.  10.  How  to  manage 
a  Hallowe'en  party.  11.  How  to  wash  dishes.  12. 
How  to  sweep  a  room.  13.  How  to  mark  out  a  base- 
ball diamond.  14.  How  to  take  care  of  a  bicycle.  15. 
How  to  catch  trout.  16.  How  to  train  a  bird-dog.  17. 
How  to  take  a  picture.     18  How  to  learn  to  swim. 


CHAPTER  IV 
DESCRIPTION 

A  STORY  which  fails  to  let  the  reader  know  how 
its  characters  look  and  in  what  kind  of  place  they 
live  does  not  satisfy.  Frequently  an  exposition 
is  as  blind  as  can  be,  until  a  picture  is  given  of 
the  thing — the  machine,  we  will  say — the  workings 
of  which  are  being  explained.  In  fact  it  matters 
little  what  we  may  be  talking  or  writing  about,  we 
are  sure  to  need  pictures  sooner  or  later.  The 
kind  of  composition  which  gives  a  picture  is  called 
description.  Speaking  with  greater  accuracy,  all 
records  of  what  the  eyes  see,  the  ears  hear,  the 
nose  smells — all  records  of  impressions — are  called 
descriptions. 

What  is  the  secret  of  this  important  kind  of 
composition  ?  Evidently  it  is  clearness.  Before  we 
can  describe  anything  clearly,  we  must  see  it  clearly. 
But  even  though  we  see  a  thing  clearly,  have  it 
before  us  as  we  talk  or  write,  it  is  seldom  easy  to 
describe  it.  Perhaps  we  use  words  inaccurately, 
or  carelessly  forget  to  mention  some  important  de- 
tail. And  even  though  we  have  seen  clearly,  have 
used  words  with  precision,  and  have  forgotten  no 
detail,  all  may  be  confusing  because  the  description 

34 


DESCRIPTION  35 

is  not  given  in  an  orderly  manner.  It  is  like  a 
machine  improperly  put  together.  If  you  would 
make  your  descriptions  clear,  be  thorough,  be  accu- 
rate, be  orderly. 


^  EXERCISE  20 

Written 

Imagine  that  one  of  the  following  things  has 
been  lost  or  stolen  and  that  you  have  been  called 
upon  to  give  in  ten  or  fifteen  lines  an  accurate  de- 
scription of  it.      Use  complete  sentences, 

I.  A  set  of  old  china.  2.  A  piece  of  furniture.  3.  A 
postal  album.  4.  A  piece  of  jewelry.  5.  A  dog.  6.  A 
cat.  7.  A  horse.  8.  The  schoolroom  clock.  *9.  An  over- 
coat. 10.  A  boat.  II.  A  bicycle.  12.  An  odd  cane. 
13.  A  school-book.  14.  A  canary.  15.  A  piece  of 
statuary. 


EXERCISE  21 

Written 

Perhaps  Mars  is  inhabited  and  perhaps  not. 
We  -will  imagine  that  it  is,  and  that  wireless 
telegraph  communications  have  been  established. 
Messages  are  flying  back  and  forth,  for  the  Mar- 
tians want  to  know  all  about  our  world  and  we  are 
equally  curious  about  theirs.  We  learn  that  there 
are  no  church  spires  in  Mars,  no  ferryboats,  no 


36  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION 

easy-chairs ;  in  fact  there  are  very  few  things  such 
as  are  familiar  to  us. 

Write  a  twenty-line  description  for  an  inhah* 
itant  of  Mars,  selecting  a  subject  from  the  follow- 
ing list.  Make  your  description  clear  as  sunlight; 
otherwise  you  will  not  be  understood.  Bring  in 
explanation,  if  it  is  needed. 

I.  Church  spires.  2.  A  ferry-boat.  3.  Easy-chairs. 
4.  A  telescope.  5.  The  peanut  man's  outfit.  6.  A  hurdy- 
gurdy.  7.  A  watch.  8.  A  jack-knife.  9.  A  schoolroom 
desk.  10.  A  postage  stamp.  11.  A  bicycle.  12.  An 
apron.     13.    An  electric  light.     14.    A  banjo. 


^  EXERCISE  22 

Written 

Opposite  page  17  is  a  picture  of  Franklin's 
birthplace.  In  many  ways  it  differs  from  the 
houses  we  see  nowadays.  Notice  the  overhanging 
upper  story,  the  projecting  foundations,  the  cellar 
door,  the  small-paned  windows.  If  you  were  de- 
scribing it,  what  should  you  mention  first?  What 
next  ?  How  would  it  do  to  begin  at  the .  bot- 
tom of  the  picture  and  work  up?  Or  at  the  top 
and  work  down  ?  Or  would  it  be  better  to  give  in 
a  sentence  or  two  a  general  description,  then  go 
into  details,  finally  giving  the  impression  the  pic- 
ture as  a  whole  makes  on  you  ? 


DESCRIPTION  37 

Study  the  picture,  determine  how  you  will  pro- 
ceed, then  describe  it  as  well  as  you  can  in  fifteen 
lines, 

EXERCISE  23 
Written 

Opposite  page  32  Is  the  picture  of  another  old 
building.  It  Is  a  larger,  more  elaborate  dwelling 
than  Franklin's;  there  Is  more  In  the  picture  to 
describe.  Notice  the  trees,  the  shadows,  the  road- 
way— a  score  of  things  which  the  other  picture 
lacks.  There  Is  more  feeling  In  this  picture,  more 
to  stir  the  emotions.  You  cannot  help  thinking  of 
how  much  has  taken  place  In  this  ancient  dwelling, 
of  the  good  times  and  the  sorrowful  times  It  knew 
before  the  days  of  the  telephone  and  the  telegraph. 
Who  planted  the  elm  trees  and  the  lilac  bushes? 

Write  a  forty-line  description  of  this  photo- 
graph. Let  the  first  four  or  five  lines  sketch  the 
scene  in  outline,  then  give  in  systematic  order  the 
details.  End  with  an  account  of  how  the  picture 
impresses  you,  what  it  calls  to  mind.  Personify  the 
dwelling,  if  you  wish, 

EXERCISE  24 

Oral 

Describe  a  building  with  which  you  are  well  ac- 
quainted. Perhaps  the  following  list  will  prove 
suggestive. 


38  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION 

I.  The  oldest  house  in  town.  2.  My  house.  3.  The 
house  across  the  way.  4.  The  schoolhouse.  5.  A  sky- 
scraper. 6.  A  deserted  farmhouse.  7.  A  log  cabin.  8. 
The  blacksmith-shop.  9.  A  factory.  10.  The  railroad 
station.     11.  The  roundhouse. 


EXERCISE  25 

Written 

Opposite  page  33  is  an  architect's  drawing 
showing  a  dining-room  in  a  model  house.  Ex- 
amine it  carefully  to  see  whether  you  like  it. 
What,  should  you  say,  are  its  dimensions?  What 
are  its  most  noticeable  features,  distinguishing  it 
from  other  dining-rooms  you  have  seen? 

Describe  this  picture  in  ten  or  fifteen  lines;  then, 
if  you  care  to,  add  five  or  ten  lines  giving  your 
approval  or  disapproval  of  the  architect's  plan. 


EXERCISE  26 

Oral  or  Written 

Give  as  accurate  and  telling  a  picture  as  you 
can  of  one  of  the  following  interiors.  Imagine  that 
you  are  talking  to  a  blind  boy.  Do  not  forget  that 
you  have  other  senses  besides  the  sense  of  sight. 

I.  Our  attic.  2.  Our  cellar.  3.  A  store  window.  4. 
The  bird  store.  5.  A  stateroom.  6.  A  Pullman  car. 
7.  A  country  store.     8.  Our  pantry.     9.  The  woodshed. 


DESCRIPTION  39 

lO.  A  boy's  room.  ii.  A  cosey  corner.  12.  A  beehive. 
13.  The  waiting-room  at  the  dentist's.  14.  The  school- 
room. 15.  The  waiting-room  at  the  railroad  station. 
16.  A  section  of  a  department  store.  17.  A  studio.  18. 
The  reading-room.  19.  The  blacksmith-shop.  20.  The 
gymnasium.  21.  A  cave.  22.  A  mine.  23.  A  log 
cabin.  24.  An  auction  room.  25.  A  church  steeple. 
26.  An  engine-room. 


CHAPTER  V 
DESCRIPTION  — Continued 

A  CAMERA,  if  given  sunlight,  tells  the  truth. 
Whatever  comes  in  front  of  its  lens  appears  in  the 
photograph.  No  detail  is  forgotten,  nothing  is  out 
of  its  proper  place.  The  human  eye  is  a  camera. 
In  a  way  it  is  right  to  say  that  whatever  comes  in 
front  of  it  is  photographed  on  the  retina.  Yet  we 
all  know  that  much  which  the  eye  sees  does  not 
make  any  permanent  impression ;  we  retain  merely 
what  interests  us  and  let  the  rest  fade  away.  And 
in  describing  what  we  have  seen  not  only  do  we 
give  far  fewer  details  than  the  camera  gives, 
merely  selecting  an  item  here,  an  item  there,  and 
assuming  that  the  imagination  of  the  one  to  whom 
we  are  writing  or  talking  will  supply  the  rest,  but 
we  tell  how  we  are  impressed.  We  give  our  emo- 
tions. A  camera  does  not  select,  a  camera  does 
not  express  emotions  peculiar  to  itself;  for  a  cam- 
era is  without  brains  and  heart. 

It  will  be  well  to  remember  this  distinction  be- 
tween a  camera  and  a  person,  while  doing  the  tasks 
which  follow — tasks  somewhat  more  difficult  than 
you  have  attempted  thus  far.  Remember  that  you 
have  a  brain  and  a  heart.     Remember  that  what 

40 


DESCRIPTION  41 

you  see  In  a  picture  or  a  scene  differs  from  what 
any  one  else  sees  in  it ;  for  no  two  pairs  of  eyes  select 
the  same  things.  But  be  like  the  camera  in  one 
respect.  A  camera  stands  still,  except  when  moved 
by  the  photographer.  Sometimes  when  we  are 
describing  a  scene  we  tell  what  we  see  from  one 
standpoint,  and  then,  without  notifying  the  reader, 
we  continue  our  description  from  another  stand- 
point. This,  of  course,  causes  confusion.  It  is 
well  to  let  the  reader  know  at  the  beginning  of  a 
description  what  the  describer's  viewpoint  Is,  and 
of  course  it  Is  essential  that  the  reader  be  notified 
whenever  there  is  a  change  in  viewpoint. 


V/  EXERCISE  27 

Written 

Think  of  some  place  out  of  doors  which  interests 
you  exceedingly,  a  place  you  like  to  visit  over  and 
over  again.  Describe  it  for  a  friend  who  lives 
across  the  Atlantic.  Try  not  only  to  make  him  see 
it,  hut  to  make  him  like  it.  Perhaps  the  following 
titles  will  prove  suggestive. 

I.  Our  swimming-hole.  2.  A  trout-pool.  3.  A  way- 
side watering-trough.  4.  A  village  green.  5.  A  nook 
in  the  woods.  6.  A  flower  garden.  7.  A  maple  grove. 
8.  The  picnic-grounds.  9.  The  apple-orchard.  10.  The 
school-yard.  ii.  The  lumber-camp.  12.  A  bit  of  a  city 
park.  13.  The  wharves.  14.  The  athletic  field.  15. 
The  mill-pond.     16.  The  tennis-courts. 


0) 


42  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION 

EXERCISE  28 

Oral  or  Written 

To  describe  clearly  an  extended  view  calls  for 
more  ability  than  any  task  assigned  thus  far;  for 
where  the  eye  sees  so  much,  the  necessity  of  select::_ 
ing  a  few  things  from  among  many  becomes  great^ 
as  does  the  necessity  of  having  a  definite  plan.  In 
the  first  canto  of  Scott's  Lady  of  the  Lake  there 
is  a  most  elaborate  description  of  the  Trossachs, 
a  wild  glen.  First,  Scott  gives  in  a  few  sentences 
a  general  description.  Then,  beginning  at  the  bot- 
tom of  the  ravine  and  gradually  climbing  to  lofty 
peaks,  he  describes  the  vegetation.  Finally  he  pic- 
tures a  rivulet  running  through  the  glen,  telling 
how  it  winds  in  and  out,  and,  growing  larger  and 
larger,  at  length  flows  Into  Loch  Katrine.  Not 
only  is  his  description  very  thorough  and  orderly; 
it  is  made  beautiful  and  vivid  by  means  of  com- 
parisons. The  rocky  summits  suggest  to  him  tur- 
rets and  domes  and  battlements.  The  brier-rose 
and  the  creeping  shrubs  are  banners.  The  stream- 
let, as  it  broadens  here  and  there,  forms  a  dark- 
blue  mirror.  Many  of  the  trees  clinging  to  the 
rocks  are  likened  to  brave  warriors.  Scott  was  a 
poet,  with  an  eye  trained  to  see  beauty,  and  a  mind 
that  was  quick  to  discover  likenesses.  But  we  are 
all  poets  to  a  degree,  and  can  train  ourselves  to 
make,  in  a  natural  way,  little  comparisons  that  add 
beauty  and  vividness. 


DESCRIPTION  43 

Describe  the  English  lake  shown  in  the  illus- 
tration (opposite  page  ^8)  entitled  Rydal  Water. 
Try  to  prop  hy  the  suggestions  given  in  the  pre- 
ceding paragraph. 


EXERCISE  29 

Oral  or  Written 

Describe  an  extended  view  with  which  you  are 
very  familiar,  giving  your  composition  one  of  the 
titles  suggested  below. 

I.  The  city  as  seen  from  the  top  of  a  high  building. 
2.  From  the  brow  of  the  hill.  3.  A  large  pond.  4.  A 
country  road.  5.  Tracing  the  course  of  a  stream. 
6.  A  range  of  hills.  7.  Looking  down  on  the  harbor. 
S.  A  farm.  9.  A  village  seen  in  the  distance.  10.  A 
battle-field.  11.  Looking  down  a  city  street.  12.  A 
park. 


•^  EXERCISE  30 

Written 

Opposite  page  49  Is  a  reproduction  from  a  paint- 
ing by  Breton.  It  is  called  Song  of  the  Lark. 
Does  it  Interest  you  at  all  ?  It  may  not  at  first,  but 
probably  If  you  study  it  long  enough  Interest  will 
come.  Where,  should  you  guess,  Is  the  scene  laid  ? 
Is  It  the  sun  that  Is  rising  behind  the  trees  In  the 
background,  or  the  moon  ?    Where  is  the  girl  going  ? 


44  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION 

How  old  Is  she  ?  Does  she  look  strong,  vigorous, 
healthy?  Is  she  an  Intelligent  girl?  Is  she  happy? 
Is  she  poor?  In  what  respect  Is  her  costume  un- 
usual? She  Is  listening.  Is  she  not?  How  does 
the  painter  let  you  know  that  she  Is  listening  most 
intently?  When  a  great  painter  makes  a  picture, 
he  has,  usually  If  not  always,  a  thought  which  he 
wishes  to  Impress.  Do  you  catch  the  thought 
lying  back  of  this  picture? 

Describe  Breton's  Song  of  the  Lark  and  tell 
zvhat  the  picture  means.  Pay  particular  attention 
to  the  expression  of  the  girl's  face. 


>/  EXERCISE  31 

Written 

To  give  In  a  few  lines  a  clear  description  of  a 
person  Is  of  course  most  difficult;  for  such  a  de- 
scription should  tell  far  more  than  that  which  the 
camera  tells.  Notice  the  following,  for  example, 
taken  from  a  recent  number  of  the  Literary  Digest. 

He  Is  forty-six,  a  shy,  gentle  little  man,  seldom  speak- 
ing, blushing  when  applauded,  stuttering  if  suddenly 
accosted,  and  dismayed  when  people  call  him  "  master." 
He  wears  a  close-fitting  black  frock  coat.  He  is  bald 
as  an  egg;  his  cheeks  are  bordered  with  a  short  gray 
beard;  his  strong,  straight  nose  carries  a  pair  of  thick, 
round  glasses,  and  the  eyes  that  look  through  them  are 
mild  and  a  trifle  wearied. 


DESCRIPTION  45 

No  doubt  you  will  agree  that  this  is  a  good 
description,  and  that  it  is  good  because  it  tells  far 
more  than  could  any  photograph. 

Here  is  another  pen-portrait,  taken  from  Dom- 
bey  and  Son.  Perhaps  it  tells  but  little  more  con- 
cerning Mr.  Bunsby  than  would  a  photograph ;  but 
It  surely  reveals  the  personality  of  Mr.  Dickens. 
Can  you  tell  how  this  portrait  differs  from  the 
one  just  considered,  as  regards  the  method  of 
description  ? 

Immediately  there  appeared,  coming  slowly  up  above 
the  bulkhead  of  the  cabin,  another  bulkhead — human, 
and  very  large — with  one  stationary  eye  in  the  mahogany 
face,  and  one  movable  one,  on  the  principle  of  some 
lighthouses.  This  head  was  decorated  with  shaggy  hair, 
like  oakum,  which  had  no  governing  Inclination  towards 
the  north,  east,  west,  or  south,  but  Inclined  to  every  point 
upon  it.  The  head  was  followed  by  a  perfect  desert  of 
chin,  and  by  a  shirt-collar  and  neckerchief,  and  by  a  dread- 
nought pilot-coat,  and  by  a  pair  of  dread-nought  pilot- 
trousers,  whereof  the  waistband  was  so  broad  and  high 
that  It  became  a  succeedaneum  for  a  waistcoat,  being  orna- 
mented near  the  wearer's  breast-bone  with  some  massive 
wooden  buttons,  like  backgammon  men.  As  the  lower 
portions  of  these  pantaloons  became  revealed,  Bunsby 
stood  confessed;  his  hands  In  their  pockets,  which  were 
of  vast  size ;  and  his  gaze  directed,  not  at  Captain  Cuttle 
or  the  ladles,  but  to  the  mast-head. 

Write  a  description^  from  ten  to  twenty  lines 
long,  suggested  by  one  of  the  titles  given  below. 


46  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION 

Try  to  make  the  portrait  reveal  character.  Imag- 
ine that  the  person  who?n  you  are  describing  is 
doing  some  characteristic  thing, 

I.  Grandmother.  2.  The  tramp.  3.  A  small  boy 
with  new  rubber  boots.  4.  The  disgusted  fisherman. 
5.  The  postman.  6.  My  best  friend.  7.  A  beggar.  8. 
The  baby.  9.  The  grocer's  clerk.  10.  Father.  11.  Our 
doctor.  12.  George  Washington.  13.  The  electric  car 
conductor.  14.  The  automobilist.  15.  "Any  rags?" 
16.  The  hotel  clerk.  17.  The  organ-grinder.  18.  The 
boy  who  sits  across  the  aisle.  19.  The  peanut  man. 
20.  The  girl  behind  the  notion  counter.  21.  The  foot- 
ball novice.  22.  The  small  boy  at  the  circus.  23.  Faces 
seen  at  the  Zoo.  24.  The  judge.  25.  A  face  from  the 
family  album.  26.  A  successful  cartoon.  27.  Our  par- 
rot.    28.  A  mischievous  girl  in  school. 


CHAPTER  VI 
ARGUMENT 

Narration  tells  a  story,  exposition  explains, 
and  description  pictures.  A  fourth  kind  of  com- 
position, which  consciously  or  unconsciously  we  use 
many  times  a  day,  is  argument.  When  we  try 
to  reason  out  what  is  true,  what  is  right,  what  is 
expedient,  we  argue.  Success  in  life  depends  in 
no  small  measure  upon  one's  ability  to  argue,  for 
through  argument  we  convince  others  and  persuade 
them  to  do  as  we  wish.  Training  counts  here 
quite  as  much  as  it  does  in  other  kinds  of  battle, 
and  there  is  no  better  place  in  which  to  begin  sys- 
tematic training  than  a  school  debating  club.  By 
all  means  join  one  as  soon  as  you  can,  whether  you 
are  a  boy  or  a  girl.  Learn  to  talk  fearlessly  when 
facing  an  audience.  Learn  how  to  defend  your- 
self without  losing  your  head  or  your  temper  when 
under  fire.  Here  are  a  few  simple  suggestions 
which  may  help  you  in  your  early  attempts. 

I.  In  preparing  a  debate  it  is  necessary  to  spend 
a  good  share  of  your  time  in  collecting  facts.  Be- 
fore you  can  argue  intelligently  you  must  know 
your  subject  thoroughly.  The  judges  too  must  be 
educated;  otherwise  they  cannot  determine  whether 

47 


48  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION 

your  arguments  are  sound.  Burke,  one  of  Eng- 
land's ablest  debaters,  often  devoted  over  a  third 
of  a  speech  to  a  clear  statement  of  facts — informa- 
tion which  his  hearers  needed  before  they  could 
see  the  force  of  his  arguments.  Lincoln,  it  is  said, 
won  his  law  cases  largely  through  his  patient, 
thorough  way  of  spreading  out  before  judge  and 
jury  all  the  facts,  rather  than  through  shrewdness 
in  argument.  Be  well  informed  yourself,  then  in- 
form those  whom  you  are  addressing:  that  is 
surely  the  first  thing  in  all  debate. 

2.  The  facts  having  been  ascertained  and  clearly 
presented,  it  is  time  to  advance  reasons  or  proofs. 
In  later  years,  if  you  remain  in  school,  you  will 
learn  that  there  are  certain  definite  ways  of  proving 
things,  but  to  attempt  to  explain  them  now  would 
probably  end  in  confusion;  so  we  will  confine  our- 
selves to  three  suggestions. 

First,  do  not  try  to  give  too  many  proofs.  Of 
ten  which  may  occur  to  you,  probably  several  are 
a  little  wide  of  the  mark,  do  not  really  prove  any- 
thing which  you  are  under  obligation  to  prove; 
and  several  others,  it  may  be,  are  after  all  too 
feeble  to  be  of  much  value.  Can  you  not  spare 
them  ?  Two  or  three  strong  proofs  will  be  enough. 
A  well-directed  cannon  is  worth  dozens  of  shot- 
guns. 

Second,  remember  that  merely  stating  an  argu- 
ment amounts  to  little.  You  must  put  facts  back 
of  it;  you  must  restate  it  this  way  and  that,  illus- 
trating it  by  example  after  example;  you  must  clear 


Song  of  the  La.rk 


ARGUMENT  49 

away  objections  which  may  interfere  with  its  ac- 
ceptance.     Drive  it  home. 

Third,  see  that  your  matter  is  well  arranged. 
Let  your  hearers  know  early  in  your  plea  what,  in  a 
general  way,  is  to  be  your  line  of  proof.  It  is 
equally  important  that  you  turn  back,  just  before 
closing,  and  review  what  you  have  said,  summariz- 
ing, condensing  everything  into  a  nutshell. 


•  EXERCISE  32 
Oral 

A  statement  to  be  debated  is  called  a  proposi- 
tion. The  proposition  should  be  so  simply  and 
clearly  stated  that  there  can  be  no  doubt  in  regard 
to  what  it  means;  for  if  one  side  understands  the 
question  in  one  way  and  the  opposing  side  in  an- 
other way,  there  can  be  no  fair  contest.  Many 
school  debates  end  in  a  tangle  because  this  matter 
is  not  properly  attended  to;  and  in  the  world  at 
large  it  is  probably  true  that  wrangling  and  the 
hard  feelings  sure  to  follow  are  due  less  to  a  real 
difference  in  opinion  than  to  carelessly  worded  and 
carelessly  interpreted  statements. 

Point  out  words  in  the  following  propositions 
which  are  too  indefinite.  Try  to  so  reword  each 
statement  that  it  will  no  longer  be  vague. 

I.  Sunday  recreations  should  be  prohibited.  2.  Girls 
should    be    taught    manual    training.     3.  Cheap    books 


50  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION 

ought  not  to  be  circulated  by  public  libraries.  4.  It  is 
wrong  to  hunt  and  fish.  5.  Polar  expeditions  do  not  pay. 
6.  Too  many  hours  a  day  should  not  be  devoted  to  exer- 
cise. 7.  Everybody  should  attend  church.  8.  City  stores 
should  close  half  a  day  a  week  during  warm  weather. 


^  EXERCISE  33 

Written 

Select  two  propositions  from  those  found  below. 
Find  three  reasons  in  support  of  each  and  three 
against;  arrange  these  in  the  order  of  their  im- 
portance, placing  the  strongest  last. 

I.  Two  half-holidays  a  week  would  be  better  for  our 
school  than  one  whole  holiday.  2.  Two  sessions,  one  in 
the  forenoon  and  one  in  the  afternoon,  would  be  better 
for  our  school  than  the  present  single  session.  3.  Monday 
would  make  a  better  school  holiday  than  Saturday.  4. 
Every  boy  should  own  a  dog.  5.  All  cats  should  be  ex- 
terminated. 6.  Girls  should  contribute  money  to  help 
defray  the  expenses  of  our  athletic  association.  7.  If  a 
street  car  is  crowded,  able-bodied  men  should  offer  their 
seats  to  ladies  who  are  standing. 


y/  EXERCISE  34 

Written 

Take  one  of  the  reasons  which  you  advanced  in 
the  preceding  exercise  and,  using  it  as  the  first  sen- 


ARGUMENT  51 

tence  of  a  paragraph,  add  a  number  of  sentences 
reenforcing  it.  Explain,  illustrate,  or  do  what- 
ever you  think  necessary  to  make  your  reasoning 
effective. 

Take  one  of  the  reasons  zvhich  you  advanced  in 
the  previous  exercise  and  try  to  show  that  it  is  weak 
or  wholly  false.    . 


EXERCISE  35 

Oral 

No  matter  how  carefully  a  military  campaign 
may  be  planned,  the  opposing  generals  are  practi- 
cally sure  to  meet  some  surprises.  The  unexpected 
happens;  things  do  not  work  out  as  planned.  It 
Is  the  same  In  debate,  which  after  all  Is  a  kind  of 
warfare.  Frequently  the  enemy  discovers  weak 
spots  In  what  you  have  thought  were  your  strong- 
est arguments.  Even  though  you  have,  very  prop- 
erly, studied  both  sides  of  the  question  with  equal 
care,  counter-arguments  will  be  advanced  which 
have  not  occurred  to  you  at  all,  It  may  be.  Such 
unexpected  turns  call  for  quick,  clear  thinking, 
ability  to  judge  whether  an  attack  Is  worth  noticing 
or  merely  a  ruse,  ability  to  detect  In  one's  oppo- 
nent's argument  a  fallacy.  A  fallacy  Is  an  un- 
sound or  deceptive  course  of  reasoning.  It  may 
take  many  different  forms,  and  when  cleverly  dis- 
guised Is  often  hard  to  detect,  especially  In  the  heat 
of  debate. 


52  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION 

Show  wherein  consists  the  fallacy  in  each  of  the 
following.  Make  your  explanation  as  clear  as  if 
you  were  taking  part  in  a  debate. 

H.  Bo5^s  should  not  be  allowed  to  go  in  bathing,  for 
bathing  frequently  leads  to  fatal  accidents.  2.  For  three 
years  in  succession  it  has  rained  on  circus  day;  therefore 
circuses  cause  rain.  |^  It  always  rains  on  circus  day. 
To-morrow  is  circus  day ;  therefore  it  will  rain  to-morrow. 
t^4.  When  I  asked  Mary  what  time  it  was,  she  glanced  at 
the  clock  and  then  said,  "  Ten-thirty."  But  when  I 
looked  at  the  clock  a  minute  later,  it  was  but  twenty-nine 
minutes  of  ten.  Therefore  Mary  meant  to  deceive  me. 
5.  Mr.  Clark  the  machinist  says  that  my  bicycle  is  very 
well  made,  but  Tommy  Jones  and  his  brother  William 
both  say  that  it  is  worthless.  Since  two  pronounce  the 
wheel  poor  and  only  one  pronounces  it  good,  I  conclude 
that  I  have  a  poor  wheel.  6.  Many  great  men  have  been 
wretched  penmen.  I  am  a  wretched  penman;  therefore 
I  shall  be  a  great  man.  7.  Birds  can  fly.  I  am  much 
larger  and  wiser  than  any  bird;  therefore  I  too  should  be 
able  to  fly.  8.  If  I  want  a  canoe  I  must  buy  one  or  else 
steal  one.  Since  I  cannot  degrade  myself  sufficiently  to 
steal,  I  shall  never  have  a  canoe  unless  I  buy  one.  9.  Mary, 
who  is  five  feet  tall,  looks  charming  in  a  blue  gown. 
Therefore  Edna,  who  is  also  five  feet  all,  would  look 
charming  in  a  blue  gown.  10.  The  flowers  of  the  field 
do  not  toil,  yet  how  beautiful  and  happy  they  are!  There- 
fore I  will  not  toil.  II.  I  have  never  seen  a  purple  cow, 
nor  have  I  ever  heard  of  one ;  therefore  there  are  no  purple 
cows.  12.  Either  it  rains  or  it  does  not  rain.  It  does 
not  rain;  therefore  it  rains.  13.  The  umpire  said  that  the 
runner  was  safe  at  third  base;  but  the  runner  admits  that 


ARGUMENT  53 

he  was  out.     The  third  baseman  is  uncertain.     I  conclude 
that  the  runner  was  out. 


EXERCISE  36 
Oral 

Let  every  pupil  come  to  class  prepared  to  ad- 
vance arguments  for  or  against  two  of  the  follow- 
ing statements,  the  two  to  he  previously  selected. 

The  instructor  will  arrange  in  parallel  columns 
on  the  blackboard  arguments  given  for  and 
against  each  proposition.  As  often  as  an  argu- 
ment is  fairly  refuted  by  any  one,  a  line  will  be 
drawn  through  it.  At  the  close  of  the  period  a 
vote  will  be  taken  to  determine  whether  the  state- 
ments are  true. 

I.  The  girls  should  have  an  athletic  association  as  well 
as  the  boys.  2.  Pupils  ought  not  to  try  to  earn  money 
while  attending  high  school  unless  compelled  to  do  so  to 
support  themselves.  3.  Latin  is  a  more  useful  language 
than  French.  4.  Every  boy  should  be  taught  how  to  use 
firearms.  5.  Football  should  be  abolished.  6.  Badges  of 
honor  should  be  given  for  excellence  in  scholarship,  just 
as  now  they  are  given  for  success  in  athletics.  7.  The 
school  paper  is  of  as  much  importance  as  the  school  ath- 
letic association.     8.  Tennis  is  a  better  game  than  golf. 


54  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION 

EXERCISE  37 

Oral 

Let  the  class  select  four  members  to  debate  one 
of  the  following  propositions  a  week  later.  Those 
not  selected  will  have  the  privilege  of  volunteering 
on  either  side. 

I.  The  orator  exerts  a  greater  influence  than  the  ed- 
itor. 2.  The  dramatist  exerts  a  greater  influence  than 
the  novelist.  3.  Shylock  is  a  nobler  character  than  Isaac 
of  York.  4.  Rebecca  is  a  nobler  woman  than  Rowena. 
5.  The  posting  of  advertisements  on  billboards  should  be 
prohibited  by  law.  6.  The  millionaire  is  more  to  be 
pitied  than  the  man  who  has  an  income  of  fifteen  hundred 
dollars  a  year.  7.  The  publishing  of  cartoons  of  the 
President  should  be  prohibited  by  law.  8.  The  dog  is 
a  nobler  animal  than  the  horse.  9.  The  doctor's  profes- 
sion is  nobler  than  the  lawyer's.  10.  Two  years  of  travel 
constitutes  a  better  preparation  for  life  than  four  years 
in  college. 


EXERCISE  38 

Written 

Defend  either  side  of  one  of  the  following  prop- 
ositions. 

I.  A  private  workshop  is  better  for  the  average  boy 
than  a  library  of  one  hundred  well-chosen  books.  2.  A 
sailboat  would  be  better  for  me  than  an  automobile. 
3.  Our  school  should  have   an   athletic  field.     4.  Birds 


ARGUMENT  55 

reason.  5.  The  boy  who  lives  in  the  country  is  more 
to  be  envied  than  the  boy  who  lives  in  the  city.  6.  It 
is  dishonest  to  get  aid  from  a  fellow  pupil.  7.  It  is 
useless  to  own  books,  if  one  has  access  to  a  good  public 
library.  8.  Lee  was  a  greater  commander  than  Grant. 
9.  The  navy  did  better  service,  during  the  Civil  war, 
than  the  army. 


CHAPTER  VII 
LETTER-WRITING 

A  LETTER  Is  but  a  composition.  Whatever 
practice  we  give  ourselves  In  telling  accurately  and 
In  a  pleasing  manner  what  we  have  heard  or  seen, 
what  we  have  felt,  what  we  believe,  will  help  us 
to  write  better  letters.  There  are,  however,  cer- 
tain rules  with  which  one  should  be  familiar,  rules 
established  by  custom  In  regard  to  how  letters 
should  begin  and  close.  These  will  now  be  con- 
sidered. 

Every  complete  letter.  It  Is  well  to  remember, 
has  seven  parts:  thQ_heading,  which  tells  where 
and  when  the  letter  Is  written ;  tht^addresj^  which 
tells  to  whom  It  Is  written;  the  salutation  or  greet- 
ing ;  the  body  or  letter  proper ;  the  leave-taking — 
Yours  truly  or  Very  truly  yours,  for  example;  the 
signature  of  the  writer;  the  su^^rscripiion,  or  that 
which  Is  written  on  the  envelope.  Perhaps  the 
best  way  to  fix  in  the  mind  how  these  parts  should 
be  arranged  will  be  to  examine  them  one  or  two 
at  a  time  through  illustrations. 

The  heading  Is  commonly  placed  In  the  upper 
right-hand  corner  of  the  first  page,  an  Inch  or  two 
from  the  top  and  fairly  near  the  right-hand  edge. 

56 


LETTER-WRITING  57 

Heading 


158  Corporal  St.,  Hartford,  Conn. 
Oct.  25,   1904 

In  the  model  above,  the  various  Items  are  arranged 
in  two  lines;  but  one,  two,  or  three  lines  may  be 
used,  according  to  the  writer's  taste.  The  date 
always  comes  last  and  should  never  be*  omitted, 
no  matter  what  the  character  of  the  letter  may  be. 
But  the  rest  of  the  heading — that  which  tells  where 
the  letter  is  written — need  not  be  given  In  full  or 
at  all,  if  the  one  to  whom  the  letter  is  written 
knows  perfectly  well  where  the  sender  lives.  Some- 
times in  social  correspondence,  but  never  in  a  busi- 
ness letter,  the  address  of  the  sender  and  the  date 
of  writing  are  placed  at  the  close  rather  than  at 
the  beginning.  This  Is  shown  in  specimen  letters 
on  later  pages.  Note  that  where  two  or  more 
Items  are  In  the  same  line  they  are  separated  by 
the  comma,  but  that  no  comma  is  placed  at  the  end 
of  a  line,  and  no  periods  are  used  except  after 
abbreviations.  In  other  words,  punctuation-marks 
are  placed  only  where  they  are  actually  needed. 

Heading  and  address 


158  Corporal  St.,  Hartford,  Conn. 
Oct.  25,   1904 


Ditson,  Spalding,  &  Company 

21  Elk  St.,  Philadelphia 


58  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION 

In  a  business  letter  the  address  comes  Invariably 
a  space  or  two  below  the  heading  and  near  the  left 
margin,  the  Items  being  arranged  in  one,  two,  or 
three  lines,  grouped  symmetrically.  Here,  as  in 
the  heading,  no  punctuation  is  needed  at  the  ends 
of  lines.  In  letters  not  of  a  business  character,  the 
address  Is  commonly  placed  at  the  close.  In  writ- 
ing to  intimate  friends  or  to  relatives,  the  address 
is  of  course  unnecessary  and  is  omitted  altogether. 


Heading,  address,  and  salutation 

158  Corporal  St.,  Hartford, 
Oct.  25,   1904 

Conn. 

Ditson, 

Spalding,  &  Company 

21  Elk  St.,  Philadelphia 

Gentlemen : 

>< 

I   am   in   receipt   of  your   letter 

of   the 

The  salutation,  you  will  note,  comes  a  space  be- 
low the  address,  in  a  business  letter;  in  other  let- 
ters where  the  address  is  omitted,  a  space  or  two 
below  the  heading.  In  either  case,  it  begins  at  the 
left  margin.  If,  however,  the  address  is  all  on  one 
line,  and  is  very  short.  It  is  better  to  begin  the 
salutation  below  the  last  letter  of  the  address. 
Generally  it  Is  followed  by  a  colon.  What  the 
salutation  should  be  varies  widely  with  circum- 
stances. Sir  and  Madam  are  seldom  used  in  ordi- 
nary correspondence,  being  very  formal  and  frigid. 


LETTER-WRITING  59 

Dear  Sir,  Dear  Madam,  My  dear  Sir,  and  My 
dear  Madam  are  commonly  used  in  business  corre- 
spondence, and  In  letters  to  strangers  or  to  those 
with  whom  one  Is  not  Intimately  acquainted.  They 
are  dignified  and  courteous.     Dear  Madam  is  the 


Heading,  address, 

and  salutation 

158  Corporal  St. 

Hartford, 

Conn.        1 

Oct. 

24, 

1904 

Professor  John  Tabb 

Dear  Sir: 

It  will  give 

the 

mem- 

bers 

of  the  Primrose  Club 

great  pleasure  if 

they 

may 

have  your 

proper  salutation  in  a  letter  to  an  unmarried 
woman  with  whom  one  Is  not  acquainted,  yet  it  Is 
also  correct  to  write  My  dear  Miss  Blank.  Gen- 
tlemen and  Mesdames  are  practically  the  only 
forms  now  used  In  writing  to  business  firms.  My 
dear  Mr.  Blank,  My  dear  Mrs.  Blank,  and  My 
dear  Miss  Blank  are  used  In  social  correspondence, 
though  If  Miss  Blank  is  no  longer  young.  Dear 
Madam  Is  a  better  form.  It  Is  not  necessary  to 
suggest  the  scores  upon  scores  of  Informal  and  af- 
fectionate salutations,  of  which  Dear  John  and 
Dear  Mary  are  the  simplest  types.  Note  that  In 
all  salutations  dear  does  not  begin  with  a  capital 


6o  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION 

except  when  It  stands  first,  but  that  Sir,  Madam, 
Miss,  etc.,  being  titles  of  respect,  do  begin  with 
capitals. 

The  body,  or  letter  proper,  should  begin  a  space 
below  the  salutation  and  immediately  under  the 
colon.  There  are  few  set  rules  to  observe,  yet 
here  are  hints  which  may  be  of  service. 

First,  business  letters  should  be  clear  and  brief, 
for  time  is  valuable  and  misunderstandings  expen- 
sive. Second,  to  begin  with  Js  I  have  nothing  else 
to  do,  I  will  write,  etc.,  etc.,  or  Having  nothing  else 
to  do,  I  thought  I  would,  etc.,  etc.,  is  surely  uncom- 
plimentary. It  is,  of  course,  unnecessary  to  conclude 
a  letter  with  Having  nothing  else  to  say,  I  will 
bring  my  letter  to  a  close.  Especially  in  business 
correspondence,  it  is  well  when  answering  a  letter 
to  refer  to  it  in  the  first  sentence,  giving  its  date. 
Third,  avoid  contractions.  YWs  for  yours,  rec^d 
for  received,  ^ — except  In  firm  names — for  and 
are  not  in  good  taste.  We  may  write  etc.  for  et 
cetera,  however,  and  in  business  correspondence 
inst.,  prox.,  and  ult.  are  allowable  abbreviations 
for  Latin  words  meaning  this  month,  next  month, 
and  last  month,  as  in  the  expression  your  letter  of 
the  2 1  St  inst.  Other  Indications  of  haste,  such  as 
undotted  I's,  uncrossed  t's,  lines  crowded  at  the 
ends,  neglected  indentions,  and  above  all  scrawling 
penmanship,  are,  even  though  not  Intended  to  be 
so,  disrespectful.  Finally,  fill  the  pages  in  regular 
order,  unless  but  two  pages  of  a  folded  sheet  are 
needed,  when  the  first  and  third  may  be  used;  and 


LETTER-WRITING  6i 

write  across  the  page  as  the  lines  are  arranged  in  a 
printed  book. 

You  will  find  enclosed  a  check  for  ten  dollars 
and  fifty  cents,  the  amount  due  according  to  your 
price-list. 

Yours  truly, 

William  H.  Burbank 


Leave-taking  and  signature 

The  leave-taking  should  come  a  space  below  the 
body.  Its  position  varies  somewhat,  according  to 
its  length.  There  are  many  forms,  the  most  com- 
mon being  Yours  truly,  Very  truly  yours,  Yours 
respectfully,  and  Yours  sincerely.  Note  that  only 
the  first  word  of  the  leave-taking  begins  with  a  cap- 
ital, and  that  the  last  word  is  followed  by  a  comma. 
It  is  best  not  to  conclude  the  body  of  a  letter  with 
a  sentence  beginning  with  a  participle  and  tacked 
on  to  the  leave-taking.  Instead  of  Hoping  I  may 
hear  from  you  soon,  I  remain,  etc.,  write  simply  / 
hope  to  hear  from  you  soon.  I  remain,  once  pop- 
ular, is  slowly  disappearing.  Be  very  careful  not 
to  write  Yours  respectively  for  Yours  respectfully. 

The  signature  comes  a  space  below  the  leave- 
taking,  and  near  the  right  edge  of  the  page.  Ex- 
cept in  informal  letters,  use  for  signature  the  name 
you  wish  your  correspondent  to  use  in  reply.  Con- 
fusion often  arises  when  married  women  employ 
two  signatures  interchangeably,     Mrs.  Clark  may 


62  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION 

sign^her  letters  Mary  Alton  Clark,  yet  wish  to  be 
addressed  as  Mrs.  John  K.  Clark.  In  such  case 
she  writes,  a  space  below  her  signature  and  near 
the  left  margin,  Please  address  Mrs.  John  K. 
Clark.     Confusion  arises  also  in  regard  to  the  sig- 


Very 

sincerely  yours, 
Mary  Alton  Clark 

Please  address 

Mrs. 

John 

K. 

Clark 

Leave-taking  and  signature 

nature  of  an  unmarried  woman.  If  Mary  Alton 
is  unmarried,  she  should,  in  writing  to  a  stranger, 
follow  the  rule  just  laid  down  for  married  women, 

Superscription 


Mr.  Henry  K.  Winslow 
234  Spangler  Avenue 
Philadelphia 

Pennsylvania 


writing  below  her  signature  and  to  the  left.  Please 
address  Miss  Mary  Alton. 


LETTER-WRITING  63 

•^The  proper  arrangement  of  the  superscription 
varies  with  the  shape  of  the  envelope.  Note  the 
order  in  which  the  items  are  given:  name,  street 


Miss  Mary  Alton 

234  Spangler  Ave, 
Philadelphia 

Pennsylvania 


address,  city,  state.  The  postal  regulations  call 
for  a  fourth  item,  the  county.  This  is  a  reason- 
able request,  but  it  is  often  disregarded,  especially 
in  New  England.     If  used,  it  should  be  on  a  line 


Mr.  John  H.  Williams 

9521  Calumet  Ave. 
Chicago 

Illinois 
Care  of  Mr.  Edward  F.  Jones 


64  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION 

below  the  city  or  town.  Note  that  all  punctuation 
is  omitted  except  the  period  following  abbrevia- 
tions. Here  are  a  few  hints  in  regard  to  super- 
scriptions. 

First,  see  that  the  envelope  is  right  side  up  be- 
fore addressing  it.     Second,  place  the  stamp  where 
it  belongs — in  the  right-hand  corner,  not  upside 
down  nor  diagonally.     Third,  write  the  address 
very   plainly,    giving  the   county  except   in   cases 
where  you  are  positive  that  it  is  unnecessary,  and 
giving  the  state  without  abbreviation.     It  is  never 
quite  safe  to  write  merely  City  or  Town,  when 
sending    in-town    letters,    yet   the   practice    is   un- 
fortunately common  in  social  correspondence.     In 
writing  to  a  person  who  is  away  from  his  home — 
for  example,  staying  with  a  friend — send  the  letter 
Care  of  the  one  with  whom  he  is  staying.    Fourth, 
unless  you  use  the  regulation  stamped  return  en- 
velope furnished  by  the  government,  it  is  safest  for 
the  sender  to  write  his  name  and  address  in  the 
upper  left-hand  corner  of  the  envelope.    Fifth,  write 
28  West  56  Street,  not  No.  28  W.  s6th  St.;  Rever- 
end John  M.  Clark,  D.D.,  not  Rev.  Dr.  John  M 
Clark;  Dr.  John  M.  Jones,  not  John  M.  Jones 
M.D.;  Professor  Harold  L.  Lake,  not  Prof.  Har 
old  L.  Lake,  M.A.;  John  M.  Geer,  Esq.,  not  Mr 
John  M.  Geer,  if  Mr.  Geer  is  a  lawyer,  or  promi 
nent  in  public  affairs;  Mr.  John  M.  Clark,  Prin 
cipal  of  Blank  Academy,  not  Prin.  John  M.  Clark 
Place  Hon.  before  the  names  of  judges,  mayors 
and  governors. 


I'hotograiihed  by  Kiigeiie  1).  Field 


Snow-bound 


LETTER-WRITING  65 

No  doubt  many  of  these  details  are  familiar 
to  most  young  people,  for  we  are  taught  how  to 
write  letters  almost  as  soon  as  we  know  how  to 
read.  But  merchants,  manufacturers,  and  business 
men  generally,  constantly  complain  that  their 
clerks  do  not  know  some  of  the  simplest  rules 
of  letter-writing;  and  it  is  to  be  feared  that  the 
same  charge  might  be  brought  against  those  who 
write  social  notes.  We  are  growing  careless.  It 
has  seemed  best,  therefore,  to  treat  the  subject 
with  unusual  thoroughness.  Here  are  a  few  final 
words  of  caution. 

Use  black  ink,  a  good  pen,  and  white  paper  of 
good  quality,  unruled,  unperfumed.  Envelopes 
and  paper  should  match.  Beware  of  "  Letter 
Writers,"  little  volumes  containing  specimen  com- 
positions to  meet  every  occasion.  It  Is  better  to 
be  one's  self,  even  if  mistakes  do  occur,  than  blindly 
follow  a  model.  There  are,  however,  reliable 
works  which  are  well  worth  consulting.  The  Eti- 
quette of  Correspondence  by  Helen  Gavit,  Studies 
for  Letters  by  Frances  Callaway,  and  The  Corre- 
spondent by  James  Wood  Davidson  are  full  of 
good  suggestions. 


66  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION 

EXERCISE  39 
Oral 
Answer  the  following  questions. 

1.  Name  the  seven  parts  of  a  complete  letter.  Under 
what  circumstances  may  some  of  the  parts  be  omitted? 

2.  What  information  is  given  in  the  heading?  In 
what  order  are  the  items  arranged?  What  item  of  the 
heading  should  never  be  omitted  ?  How  should  the  head- 
ing be  punctuated?  y  the  address  given  in  the  heading 
is  not  the  one  to  which  the  writer  wishes  a  reply  sent, 
how  does  he  indicate  thisrj 

3.  What  is  the  proper  place  for  the  address?  How 
should  it  be  punctuated?  Why  in  a  business  letter  is  it 
best  to  place  the  address  before  the  body?  Why  is  the 
address  necessary  at  all? 

4.  How  should  the  salutation  be  capitalized  and  punc- 
tuated? Where  should  it  be  placed?  What  is  the 
proper  salutation  for  a  letter  to  an  unmarried  woman? 

5.  Where  should  the  body  of  a  letter  begin?  Why  is 
it  advisable  in  answering  a  letter  to  refer  to  it  by  date? 
What  two  objections  can  you  make  to  the  following  be- 
ginning: As  I  have  nothing  else  to  do,  I  thought  I  would 
write  you  a  letter"^ 

6.  Give  the  more  common  forms  of  leave-taking.  How 
should  the  leave-taking  be  capitalized  and  punctuated? 

7.  What  advice  can  you  give  in  regard  to  the  signature 
of  a  letter? 

8.  What  items  of  information  should  appear  in  the 
superscription  ? 


CHAPTER  VIII 

LETTER-WRITING  —  Continued 

Here  are  sixteen  specimen  letters.  Study  them 
carefully.  Try  to  find  In  them  things  which 
are  not  quite  as  you  think  they  should  be. 
There  are  questions  on  a  later  page  which  will 
test  the  thoroughness  with  which  your  work  is 
done. 

I 

158  Corporal  St.,  Hartford,  Conn. 
Oct.  25,  1904 
Ditson,  Spalding,  &  Co. 

21  Bow  St.,  Philadelphia 
Gentlemen : 

Please  send  by  Adams  Express  the  following 
articles : 

I  doz.  Keepwell  tennis  balls $4.00 

I  Kramer  racket,    16  oz 4.00 

I  Kramer   racket,    14  oz 4.00 

I  tennis  net,  "  Quality  A  " 1.60 

I  marker    75 

You  will  find  enclosed  my  check  for  the  proper 
amount. 

-  Yours  truly, 

William  H.  Burbank 
67 


68  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION 


DiTSON,  Spalding,  &  Company 

Dealers  in  Athletic  Goods 

21  Bow  Street,  Philadelphia,  Penna. 

Philadelphia,  Oct.  26,  1904 

Mr.  William  H.  Burbank 

158  Corporal  St.,  Hartford,  Conn. 
Dear  Sir: 

Accept  our  thanks  for  your  favor  of  the  25th 
inst.  containing  an  order  for  tennis  goods  and  enclosing 
check  for  fourteen  dollars  thirty-five  cents  ($14.35). 
We  are  sending  the  articles  by  to-day's  express,  charges 
paid.  You  v^^ill  find  enclosed  a  receipted  bill. 
Gratefully  yours, 

Ditson,  Spalding,  &  Company 


123  Garden  Street 

Maplewood,  Vermont 
Nov.  3,  1904 
Cairn  &  Company 

29  Mayflov^^er  St. 
Boston,  Mass. 
Gentlemen : 

The  Round  Table,  a  literary  club  of  forty 
seniors  in  Maplewood  High  School,  is  to  take  up  this 
winter  a  study  of  letters  based  upon  the  published  corre- 
spondence of  Longfellow,  Stevenson,  and  one  or  two 
others.  Our  purpose  in  planning  such  a  course,  aside 
from  the  enjoyment  coming  from  a  somewhat  intimate 
acquaintance  with  the  authors  studied,  is  to  teach  our- 


LETTER- WRITING  69 

selves  something  of  the  art  of  letter-writing.  It  has 
occurred  to  us  that  the  first  requisite  of  a  good  letter  Is 
good  stationery.  Your  local  representatives,  Messrs. 
Wood  &  Towles,  suggest  that  perhaps  you  v^Ill  be  w^IUing 
to  send  us  a  few  samples  of  what  you  consider  correct  In 
quality  and  style. 

Our  club  has  no  treasury ;  It  can  therefore  offer  you  no 
compensation,  except  the  comfortable  feeling  that  one 
experiences  when  aiding  a  good  cause.  It  would  be 
known,  however,  that  you  were  the  donors,  and  that  your 
line  of  stationery  is  carried  by  a  local  firm.  Perhaps 
some  of  our  members  would  be  led,  sooner  or  later,  to 
adopt  your  papers.  But  this  Is,  of  course,  conjectural. 
If  the  request  seems  unreasonable,  be  assured  that  we 
shall  In  no  way  be  offended. 

Very  truly  yours, 

Alice  Helene  Cowles, 

Secretary 

^4 

Cairn  &  Company 

Fine  Paper  Manufacturers 

29  Mayflower  St.,  Boston,  Mass. 

November  5,  1904 
Miss  Alice  Helene  Cowles 

Maplewood,  Vermont 
My  dear  Miss  Cowles: 

Your  letter  of  the  3d  Inst,  is  at 
hand  and  noted.  We  will  make  up  for  you  three  folders 
showing  various  styles  of  high-grade  papers  in  different 
sizes,  and  arranged  In  such  a  way  that  they  can  be  exhib- 
ited conveniently.     It  will  take  several  days  to  prepare 


70  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION 

these  folders;  we  will,  however,  send  them  as  soon  as 
possible. 

We  are  interested  in  the  plan  of  your  club,  and  wish 
you  to  feel  that  we  esteem  it  a  privilege  to  grant  your 
request. 

Yours  very  truly, 

Cairn  &  Company 

5 

III  Pine  St. 

Deerford,  R.  I. 
Oct.  2,  1904 
Dear  Sir: 

Permit  me  to  thank  you  for  your  letter  pub- 
lished in  a  recent  issue  of  the  Morning  Chronicle.  We 
boys  feel  precisely  as  you  do  about  the  matter.  It  does 
seem  as  if  in  a  city  containing  so  many  parks  there  might 
be  found  some  place  where  football  could  be  played. 
We  realize  that  the  game  is  not  one  that  helps  grass 
to  grow,  and  that  spirited  contests  often  attract  noisy 
crowds.  Doubtless  there  are  still  other  drawbacks.  Yet 
it  does  seem  as  if  there  were  good  points  enough  to  over- 
balance the  bad  ones,  and  that  the  game  deserves  a  public 
field.  It  is  therefore  a  great  pleasure  to  have  you  cham- 
pion the  cause. 

You  will  pardon  me,  I  hope,  for  sending  you  this  note. 
Your  letter  pleased  me  so  much  that  I  have  allowed 
myself  to  forget  that  you  are  a  stranger,  and  probably 
too  busy  to  read  a  boy's  letter. 

Respectfully  yours, 

John  Hartley  Hale 
Mr.  Henry  Clark  Wilson 

38  Schumann  Terrace 


LETTER-WRITING  71 

6 

38  Schumann  Terrace 
October  5 
My  dear  young  friend: 

Few  men  are  too  busy  to  read  a 
carefully  written  letter  from  a  schoolboy,  especially  if 
it  contain  a  compliment.  At  any  rate,  I  have  read  your 
letter  with  interest. 

Just  what  can  be  done  to  bring  about  the  end  we  both 
desire^  I  do  not  at  present  clearly  see;  but  perhaps  some 
way  will  appear  before  long.  It  occurs  to  me  as  I  write 
that  I  might,  temporarily,  help  out  by  letting  the  boys 
use  my  lot,  corner  of  Broad  and  Lincoln  streets.  It  is 
not  perfectly  level,  and  there  is  a  muddy  spot  in  one 
corner  which  would  have  to  be  filled  in.  To  remedy  this 
defect  would  cost  but  little,  however,  and  I  think  I  could 
attend  to  it. 

If  the  plan  pleases  you,  will  you  not  call  at  my  house 
Friday  evening  at  eight  that  we  may  talk  it  over? 

Yours  very  truly, 

Henry  C.  Wilson 

7 

264  Capron  Street 
January  4 
Mrs.  J.  C.  Simpson 

239  May  Street 
Dear  Madam: 

I  learn  through  your  advertisement  in  to- 
night's Times  that  you  desire  a  young  girl  to  read  to 
you  and  to  write  letters  from  dictation.  Please  consider 
me  an  applicant. 

I  am  sixteen,  a  high  school  senior.     I  am  not  a  trained 


72  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION 

reader;  that  is,  I  cannot  read  With  elocutionary  effect. 
Nor  can  I  claim  to  be  unusually  good  in  composition. 
It  seems  to  me,  however,  that  I  should  be  able  to  read 
ordinary  prose  distinctly,  and  write  with  reasonable  ac- 
curacy. By  permission  I  refer  you  to  Principal  Wilbur 
F.  Howells,  who  may  be  addressed  at  the  high  school. 

I  shall  be  pleased  to  call  at  your  home  whenever  it 
may  be  convenient  to  you. 

Very  truly  yours, 

Adele  M.  Peberdy 

^8 

Dear  Ellinwood: 

This  will  introduce  to  you  my  very  good 
friend  John  Hartwell,  who  is  to  be  in  Waveland  for  a 
few  weeks.  You  will  find  him  a  capital  fellow,  with 
athletic  likings  similar  to  j^our  own.  I  am  sure  you  will 
take  pleasure  in  doing  what  you  can  to  make  his  stay 
agreeable. 

Your  old-time  college  mate, 

Marshall  Hagar 
34  Edgewood  Place 
November  24 

9 

Dear  Miss  White: 

Please  excuse  me  for  being  absent  yes- 
terday,  and    for   not   being   prepared    to    recite   to-day's 
lessons.     Mother  was  quite  111,  and  it  became  necessary 
for  me  to  remain  at  home  and  care  for  her. 
Yours  very  truly, 

Alfreda  Roeder 
June  thirds 


LETTER-WRrriNG  73 

''  lO 

■    '  Wednesday,  8  a.m. 

Dear  Tom: 

Lunch  at  twelve  to-day.  Come.  Don't  wear 
fine  clothes,  for  the  ponies  need  exercising.  We  shall 
want  to  take  a  long  scamper  out  to  the  Camp  and  back. 
Remember,  I  never  take  "  No  "  for  an  answer.  James, 
who  bears  this  note,  has  orders  to  seize  you  by  force  of 
arms  if  you  show  the  slightest  sign  of  resistance. 
Yours, 

Pembroke  the  Terrible 

II 

69  Peebles  Court 
My  dear  Miss  Chad  wick: 

If  you  have  no  engagement  for 
Wednesday  evening,  October  tenth,  will  you  not  give  us 
pleasure  by  dining  with  us  informally  at  seven? 
Very  sincerely  yours, 

Margaret  Harmon 
Saturday,  October  sixth 

12 

2251  Girard  Avenue 
My  dear  Miss  Harmon: 

It  will  be  a  great  pleasure  to 
dine  with  you  Wednesday,  October  tenth.  How  thought- 
ful you  were  to  remember  that  mother's  absence  from 
home  would  leave  me  alone! 

Very  truly  yours, 

Elizabeth  Chadwick 
Monday,  October  eighth 


74  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION 

13 

Mr.  and  Mrs.  Simpson  request  the  pleasure  of  Mr. 
Wheeler's  company  at  dinner  on  Wednesday,  June 
twenty- third,  at  seven  o'clock.  To  meet  Mr.  James 
Larkin. 

23  Lear  Street,  June  nineteenth 

14 

Mr.  Wheeler  regrets  that  a  previous  engagement  pre- 
vents him  from  accepting  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Simpson's  kind 
invitation  to  dine  with  them  Wednesday,  June  twenty- 
third. 

1 1  Rowe  Avenue,  June  twenty-first 

15 

Mr.  Wheeler  accepts  with  pleasure  Mr.  and  Mrs. 
Simpson's  kind  invitation  to  dine  with  them  Wednesday, 
June  twenty-third,  at  seven  o'clock. 

1 1  Rowe  Avenue,  June  twenty-first 

16 

Simsbury,  Conn. 

October  13,  1904 
Dear  Mother: 

It  seems  an  age  since  you  left  us,  but  I 
suppose  you  have  barely  arrived  and  begun  to  "  do  "  the 
Fair. 

The  post-cards  came,  and  are  almost  as  pretty  as  the 
German  ones.  We  have  swapped,  because  Fay  liked 
mine  better  than  hers,  and  she  has  taken  her  birthday 
money  to  buy  an  album.  I  have  promised  to  help  her 
put  all  her  cards  into  it  next  Saturday,  if  it  happens  to 


LETTER-WRITING  75 

be  rainy  so  that  we  cannot  go  chestnutting  again.     Pri- 
vately, I  hope  it  will  be  pleasant. 

She  and  I  take  turns  sitting  at  the  head  of  the  table, 
and  you  can  imagine  what  a  morsel  she  looked  last  night, 
sitting  there  so  erect  and  dignified  in  your  great  carved 
chair.  Katy  had  another  accident  with  the  china — only 
a  common  blue  cup— and  you  would  have  smiled  to  hear 
her  say,  "  It  doesn't  matter,"  just  as  kindly  as  you  would 
have  done.  And  she  declined  a  second  portion  of  pud- 
ding, too,  though  it  was  the  kind  she  ordered  and  was 
very  good. 

I  believe  I  promised  to  write  you  about  my  new 
teachers.  I  was  so  unreconciled  to  parting  with  my  dear 
Mr.  Graves,  and  I  even  dared  to  tell  him  so.  But  he 
smiled  at  me  in  his  own  pleasant  way,  and  only  said, 
"You  see,  Miss  Dale,  I  can't  be  with  you  always!  "  I 
haven't  had  time  to  "  size  up  "  the  new  ones  yet,  but 
thus  far  one  of  them  seems  so  stern  and  the  other  so 
lovely  and  expectant  that  I  can't  possibly  slight  either 
lesson,  and  so,  between  the  two  of  them,  I  see  strenuous 
days  ahead. 

Your  loving  eldest, 

Edith 

P.  S.     Fay  sends  love,  and  says  to  write  to  her. 


EXERCISE  40 
Oral 

Answer  the  following  questions. 

I.  In  the  first  specimen  letter,  might  the  heading  have 
been  given  a  different  arrangement?     Why  is  the  state 


76  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION 

not  given  in  the  address?  Is  the  comma  after  Spalding 
necessary?  What  advantage  is  there  in  placing  each 
item  of  the  order  on  a  separate  line?  Was  it  necessary 
to  mention  the  price  of  each  article?  Why  mention  that 
a  check  accompanies  the  letter? 

2.  Was  it  necessary,  in  the  second  letter,  to  repeat  the 
word  Philadelphia  in  the  heading?  What  is  the  meaning 
of  inst.f  What  would  the  2Sth  ult.  mean?  Why  do 
Ditson,  Spalding,  &  Co.  mention  the  receipt  of  their  cus- 
tomer's letter? 

3.  How  does  the  arrangement  of  the  heading  and 
address  in  the  third  letter  differ  from  the  arrangement 
of  the  heading  and  address  in  the  first  two  ?  What  is  the 
uncontracted  form  of  Messrs.?  Why  did  not  the  secre- 
tary of  the  Round  Table  put  Miss  before  her  name? 

4.  Why,  in  the  fifth  letter,  is  the  address  placed  after 
the  body?  Why,  in  the  sixth,  is  it  omitted?  How  do 
you  account  for  the  difference  between  the  leave-takings 
in  these  two  letters? 

5.  Account  for  the  incompleteness  of  the  heading  and 
the  address  in  the  seventh  letter?  Where  else  might  the 
heading  have  been  placed?  Had  Mrs.  Simpson  been 
unmarried,  what  would  have  been  the  proper  salutation? 
Criticise  this  letter  of  application,  noting  the  good  points 
and  also  anything  which  you  think  might  be  improved. 
What  ought  a  letter  of  application  to  tell?  Why  should 
it,  ordinarily,  be  brief? 

6.  Is  it  polite  to  seal  a  letter  of  introduction?  What 
advantage  is  there  in  writing  in  the  lower  left-hand 
corner  of  the  envelope  containing  a  letter  of  introduc- 
tion the  words  Introducing  Mr.  ?     Why,  in  this 

specimen  letter,  is  the  heading  placed  after  the  body 
and  abbreviated    somewhat?     Under  what  circumstances 

I 


LETTER-WRITING  77 

should  a  letter  of  introduction  contain  the  complete 
address  of  the  sender?  Why  should  such  a  letter  be 
brief  and  contain  nothing  but  the  Introduction? 

7.  Study  carefully  the  Invitations  contained  In  letters 
ten,  eleven,  and  thirteen;  then  explain  with  accuracy 
how  and  why  they  differ.  Comment  In  the  same  way 
on  the  replies  to  these  invitations.  Why  do  letters  thir- 
teen, fourteen,  and  fifteen  contain  no  signature? 

8.  Important  as  It  Is  to  be  careful  about  the  conven- 
tionalities of  letter-writing,  they  are,  after  all,  of  second- 
ary consideration.  What  makes  a  letter  from  a  friend 
delightful?  Why  do  you  read  some  letters  many  times, 
while  others  fail  to  interest  you  at  all?  What,  then,  is 
the  secret  of  good  letter-writing? 


EXERCISE  41 

Written 

Come  to  class  prepared  to  do  the  following  tasks 
at  the  blackboard. 

1.  Write  the  Introductory  and  concluding  parts — all, 
that  Is,  except  the  body — of  letters  to  five  different  firms. 

2.  Write  the  introductory  parts  of  letters  to  the  fol- 
lowing: a  doctor,  a  clergyman,  a  professor,  the  principal 
of  a  school,  and  a  Miss  Mary  L.  Jordon  of  2251  Hecla 
Avenue  In  Chicago. 

3.  Direct  envelopes  to  the  following:  a  business  house 
In  New  York,  a  clergyman  In  Cleveland,  a  physician 
living  In  a  Maine  village,  the  editor  of  a  newspaper,  a 
cousin  of  your  own  age  who  is  visiting  relatives  in  New 
Orleans,   a  boy   friend   who   is   spending   the   winter  in 


78  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION 

Edinburgh,  a  lawyer  of  your  own  town,  the  secretary  of 
a  college,  the  mayor  of  your  city  or  the  first  selectman 
of  your  town,  your  aunt  who  is  staying  at  the  Waldorf 
Astoria  in  New  York,  two  sisters  whom  you  are  inviting 
to  lunch,  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Blank  whom  you  are  inviting 
to  dinner. 

4.  Write  appropriate  headings  for  letters  supposed  to 
be  written  to-day  from  the  following  places:  your  home, 
the  school,  the  Auditorium  Hotel  in  Chicago,  the  steam- 
ship Tethys  in  mid-ocean,  a  village  in  Arizona,  a  camp 
in  the  woods. 


CHAPTER  IX 

I.ETTER-WRITING  — Continued 

EXERCISE  42 

Written 

Write  one  or  more  letters,  according  as  your 
instructor  may  determine,  selecting  from  the  fol- 
lowing group. 

I.  To  a  friend,  congratulating  him  on  having  won  a 
prize  in  a^  tennis  tournament.  2.  To  a  school  friend, 
inviting  him  to  dine  with  you  informally.  3.  To  Mr. 
and  Mrs.  Blank,  accepting  an  invitation  to  dine  with 
them  Wednesday.  4.  To  your  postmaster,  asking  him 
to  forward  your  mail  to  a  certain  place  for  a  given  time. 
5.  To  Perry  Mason  Company,  asking  them  to  send  you 
the  Youth's  Companion  for  one  year.  6.  To  the  secre- 
tary of  Blank  College,  asking  him  to  send  you  a  cata- 
logue and  also  specimen  entrance  examination  papers.  7. 
To  the  local  paper,  asking  to  have  inserted  for  three  issues 
an  advertisement  which  you  enclose.  8.  To  a  friend,  in- 
forming him  that  he  has  been  elected  a  member  of  the 
school  debating  club,  and  explaining  to  him  the  nature 
of  the  organization,  the  time  and  place  of  meeting,  etc. 
Express  the  hope  that  he  will  accept  the  election.  9.  To 
the  secretary  of  the  debating  club,  answering  the  letter 

79 


8o  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION 

called  for  in  the  preceding.  lo.  To  your  teacher,  asking 
to  be  excused  from  reciting,  ii.  To  your  teacher,  ex- 
plaining your  absence  from  school. 


EXERCISE  43 

Written 

Perform,  one  of  the  tasks  called  for  below. 

I.  You    are    contemplating   spending   your    next    long 

vacation  in  .     Write  to  a  friend  who  has  been 

there,  asking  for  information  in  regard  to  such  things  as 
you  wish  to  know  before  making  your  decision.  2.  An- 
swer a  letter  inquiring  about  the  place  In  which  you 
spent  your  last  vacation.     Imagine  that  the  letter  Is  from 

a  friend  of  your  own  age.     3.  Your  friend  Is 

coming  to  town  with  some  friends  who  wish  to  see  the 
principal  places  of  Interest.  He  writes  to  you  for  ad- 
vice. Map  out  for  him  a  forenoon,  or  a  whole  day,  of 
sight-seeing.  Doubtless  the  party  will  get  hungry;  sug- 
gest where  a  good  dinner  may  be  obtained.  Be  very 
clear  In  all  your  statements.  4.  Reply  to  a  letter  from 
some  one  of  your  own  age  asking  what  to  read.  Do  a 
little  more  than  give  the  titles  of  books,  but  do  not  inter- 
fere with  your  friend's  enjoyment  by  telling  too  much 
about  the  volumes  you  recommend.  5.  Write  a  mid- 
summer letter  to  a  classmate,  asking  him  to  contribute 
an  article  to  the  school  paper.  Explain  that  as  editor 
you  have  found  it  difficult  to  obtain  suitable  material  for 
the  October  number.  Discuss  the  kind  of  article  you 
think  the  readers  would  enjoy,  and  mention  two  or  three 
topics  on  which  you  think  he  could  write  entertainingly. 


LETTER-WRITING  8i 

6.  Imagine  that  you  are  a  college  graduate.  Write  to 
a  schoolgirl  who  has  consulted  you  in  regard  to  the  ad- 
visability of  joining  a  debating  club. 


EXERCISE  44 
Written 
Perform  one  of  the  tasks  called  for  below, 
I.  Answer  one  of  the  following  advertisements: 


Wanted:  A  high  school  boy  who  writes  a  good 
hand  and  can  spell  correctly,  to  do  clerical  work 
afternoons  and  Saturdays.  Apply  by  letter  to  J.  D. 
Flynn,  86  Miles  Building. 


Wanted:  High  school  girl  to  act  as  amanuensis 
afternoons  to  elderly  lady.  Apply  by  letter  to  Miss 
Sarah  Levermore,  99  Cordial  St. 


2.  John  Carroll  advertises  that  he  wishes  to  exchange 
his  canoe  for  a  bicycle.  The  canoe  can  be  seen  at  Dol- 
phin's boat-house,  foot  of  Barnacle  St.  Write  the  ad- 
vertisement and  also  a  letter  in  reply  to  it. 

3.  The  local  paper  has  credited  you  with  a  brilliant 
play  in  football  which  in  reality  was  made  by  some  one 
else.  Write  to  the  editor  suggesting  that  correction  be 
made. 


82  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION 

EXERCISE  45 

Written 

Perform  one  of  the  tasks  called  for  below. 

I.  Charles,  in  his  letter  to  you,  finds  fault  with  Mr. 
Henty's  stories.  Reply,  defending  the  author.  2.  Mary, 
with  whom  you  have  attended  school  in  the  city  for  years, 
has  moved  to  a  small  town.  In  a  fit  of  homesickness 
she  writes  a  letter  in  which  she  bewails  her  fate  and 
enumerates  the  many  disagreeable  features,  both  in  school 
and  out,  of  life  in  a  small  town.  You  reply,  trying  to 
cheer  her,  and  attempt  to  show  that  what  seem  to  be  dis- 
advantages may  in  time  prove  blessings.  You  remind  her 
of  some  of  the  disadvantages  of  city  life  which  she  has 
overlooked.  Do  not  simply  give  enumerations,  but  en- 
large upon  each  argument  till  it  acquires  force.  3.  Write 
to  your  friend  the  park  commissioner,  trying  politely  to 
persuade  him  that  the  parks  should  be  thrown  open  for 
athletic  contests.  Write  his  reply  in  which  he  states,  with 
politeness  equal  to  your  own,  the  reasons  why  your  request 
cannot  be  granted.  4.  Write  to  a  friend  giving  an 
account  of  a  spirited  school  debate  to  which  you  have 
recently  listened. 

EXERCISE  46 

Written 

The  tasks  in  this  exercise  call  for  chains  of 
letters.  Select  the  one  which  appeals  to  you  most 
strongly. 

I.  While  crossing  the  Atlantic,  you  send  adrift  in  a 
securely  corked  bottle  a  brief  letter  inviting  the  one  who 


LETTER-WRITING  83 

finds  the  bottle  to  communicate  with  you.  Write  the 
letter  sent  adrift,  the  letter  sent  by  the  finder,  and  your 
reply. 

2.  On  coming  out  of  a  store  you  take  by  mistake  the 
wrong  bicycle.  Discovering  your  error  an  hour  later, 
you  hurry  back  to  find  your  own  wheel,  which  you  had 
left  at  the  curb,  gone.  You  advertise.  Give  the  ad- 
vertisement, the  reply  received,  and  your  final  apology. 

3.  Mr. of ,  a  neighboring  town,  adver- 
tises that  he  has  lost  a  valuable  dog,  a  brief  descrip- 
tion of  which  he  gives.  A  reward  is  ofEered.  You  have 
found  a  dog  answering  fairly  well  the  description  given; 

so  you  write  to  Mr.  ,  asking  him  to  call  or  send 

a  messenger.  But  he  replies  that  his  dog  has  just  re- 
turned; the  dog  found  cannot,  therefore,  be  his.  He 
regrets  that  he  has  caused  you  trouble.  Meanwhile  your 
friend  ,  who  has  recently  removed  to  a  neighbor- 
ing town,  writes  you  a  letter  telling  of  his  first  impres- 
sions of  his  new  home.  Quite  incidentally  he  mentions 
that  he  has  lost  his  dog,  purchased  a  short  time  before  his 
removal.  He  thinks  that  perhaps  the  dog  may  have  pre- 
ferred old  quarters  to  new,  and  has  therefore  gone  back 
to   them.     You  are  asked   to  be  on   the  lookout.     You 

reply,  telling  of  your  experience  with  Mr.  ,  and 

expressing  joy  that  at  last  you  have  found  the  rightful 
owner.  You  are  surprised  that  you  did  not  at  once  rec- 
ognize the  little  fellow.  You  will  ship  the  dog  at  once. 
But  back  comes  a  note  stating  that  the  dog  has  been  re- 
ceived ;  not  the  right  one,  however.  He  asks  what  he  had 
better  do  with  it.  Write  the  advertisement  and  all  the 
letters  called  for  by  the  above  circumstances;  also  write  a 
letter  to  your  invalid  uncle,  telling  him  all  about  your 
experiences  and  what  finally  became  of  the  dog. 


84  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION 

4.  You  write  to  Mr.  A ,  who  ow^ns  a  farm  on 

the  shores  of  ,  asking  permission  to  camp  next 

summer  on  his  grounds.  You  describe  the  particular 
spot  you  have  selected,  a  place  you  noted  while  driving 

by,  a  year  or  two  ago.     Mr.  A replies  granting 

your  request,  but  suggesting  that  you  may  prefer  one 
or  two  other  spots,  which  he  describes,  giving  the  ad- 
vantages of  each.  You  write  to  Jack  telling  him  that 
you  are  arranging  a  camping  party  for  the  coming  sum- 
mer and  inviting  him  to  join.  You  give  him  as  many 
particulars  as  you  think  he  should  know,  and  add  a  little 
advice  in  regard  to  what  he  had  better  carry.  Friend 
Jack  replies  accepting  your  invitation.  He  asks  for  fur- 
ther information  on  certain  points. 

5.  You  order  from  a  New  York  firm  dealing  in  camp 
equipment  a  bill  of  goods,  giving  explicit  directions  in 
regard  to  prices,  when  and  where  goods  should  be  shipped, 
etc.  The  firm  in  its  reply  states  that  it  has  not  in  stock 
some  of  the  articles  desired,  and  inquires  whether  it  may 
substitute  others. 

6.  Charles  writes  from  camp  a  birch-bark  letter  to 
Henry,  who  has  been  prevented  by  sickness  from  joining 
the  party.  Henry,  on  the  campers'  return,  invites  all  to 
dine  with  him.  Write  his  note  to  Charles,  also  Charles's 
reply.     Clyde  cannot  come.     Write  his  letter  of  regrets. 

EXERCISE  47 

Written 

Perform  one  of  the  tasks  called  for  below. 

I.  Write  to  Mr.  K ,  cabinet-maker,  ordering  him 

to  mate  you  a  bookcase,  or  some  other  article.     Give  accu- 


LETTER-WRITING  85 

rate  particulars  concerning  materials,  design,  finish,  etc. 
Make  clear,  if  you  wish,  by  means  of  drawings.  2.  You 
are  on  a  journey.  Write  a  letter  home  telling  about  the 
trip.  3.  You  have  been  in  a  railroad  accident.  To  allay 
possible  anxiety,  first  telegraph  home  that  you  are  safe, 
then  write  a  letter  giving  particulars.  4.  You  have  wit- 
nessed an  electric-car  accident  in  which  several  persons 
were  injured.  The  electric  railway's  attorney  writes 
asking  you  to  state,  as  accurately  as  you  can,  all  that  you 
saw.  Give  his  letter  and  your  reply.  5.  You  have  moved 
recently  into  a  new  house  and  are  very  enthusiastic  about 
it,  though  you  miss  some  things  you  had  come  to  like  in 
the  old  home.  Write  to  a  friend  about  it,  making  the 
description  of  the  new  home  so  vivid  that  your  friend  will 
get  a  correct  impression.  Be  systematic,  determining  be- 
forehand what  order  you  will  adopt  in  your  description. 
Pay  particular  attention  to  your  own  room,  or  to  some 
other  which  particularly  interests  you. 


CHAPTER  X 
STORY-TELLING 

It  is  Improbable,  though  by  no  means  impos- 
sible, that  any  one  into  whose  hands  this  book 
may  fall  will  ever  become  a  great  novelist.  Yet 
it  is  doubtless  true  that  many  young  people — per- 
haps it  is  safe  to  say  most  young  people — have  at 
times  a  secret  longing  to  be  great  story-tellers. 
Not  a  few  actually  try  a  hand  at  it,  only  to 
find  that  longing  to  be  a  second  Dickens  or  a 
second  Scott,  and  trying  to  be  one,  and  actually 
becoming  one  are  three  very  different  things. 
Great  story-tellers,  like  great  poets,  are  born,  not 
made. 

It  often  happens,  however,  that  trying  hard  to 
do  some  worthy  thing  which  is  beyond  our  ability 
helps  us  in  many  ways.  Trying  to  write  a  story, 
for  example,  may  not  produce  a  masterpiece,  but  it 
Is  pretty  sure  to  increase  our  respect  for  those  who 
have  succeeded  where  we  have  failed.  It  makes 
us  more  sensitive  to  the  beauty  and  strength  of  the 
works  of  Hawthorne  and  Poe  and  the  other  mas- 
ters. We  read  their  stories  with  greater  pleasure. 
Perhaps  this  is  the  main  reason  why  a  little  prac- 
tice In  this  line  Is  profitable.     But  there  Is  another, 

86 


STORY-TELLING  87 

more  practical  reason.  Back  of  all  fiction  lies 
imagination,  the  ability  to  put  one's  self  in  an- 
other's place.  When  Mr.  Dickens  wrote  Great 
Expectations,  he  had  to  be  many  other  people  be- 
sides himself;  he  had  to  be  an  honest  blacksmith 
named  Joe  Gargery,  a  little  lad  named  Pip,  a 
coarse  convict  with  a  vein  of  gold  in  his  character, 
a  steel-hearted  lawyer,  and  a  score  of  other  people, 
shrewdly  imagining  what  each  would  do  and 
say  under  certain  conditions.  That  is  what  every 
novelist  must  do ;  that  is  what  you  try  to  do  when 
you  write  a  tale  for  your  classmates.  And  it  is 
something  very  similar  to  this,  is  it  not,  that  the 
merchant,  the  doctor,  the  teacher,  the  statesman 
has  to  do.  It  is  difficult  for  any  one  to  succeed  in 
a  great  undertaking  unless  he  has  the  power  to  put 
himself  in  another's  place ;  it  is  difficult  for  him  to 
succeed  unless  he  has  imagination. 

Exercising  the  imagination  through  story-telling 
ought,  therefore,  to  be  exceedingly  profitable;  it 
should  not  be  altogether  disagreeable.  First  at- 
tempts may  be  somewhat  crude,  though  they  are 
seldom  uninteresting.  The  beginner  often  succeeds 
remarkably  well,  turning  out  little  stories  that  are 
well  worth  listening  to ;  and  through  practice  many 
things  at  first  very  difficult  become  easier.  For  ex- 
ample, there  is  the  matter  of  finding  a  plot.  We 
discover  sooner  or  later  that  there  are  events  in  our 
own  lives  which,  when  enlarged  upon  and  changed 
a  little — a  story-teller  has  the  right  to  tell  things 
as  they  might  have  happened ;  he  need  not  stick  to 


88  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION 

the  truth — make  Interesting  little  comedies  and 
tragedies.  We  train  our  eyes  to  see  stories  lurk- 
ing back  of  paragraphs  In  the  dally  paper.  We 
form  the  habit  of  Inventing  stories  to  go  with  our 
favorite  pictures  or  to  match  a  face  seen  but  for  an 
instant  in  the  crowded  street.  No  matter  where 
we  turn,  we  see,  if  our  eyes  are  properly  trained, 
tales  well  worth  telling. 

An  old  story  tells  that  years  ago,  when  pirates 
Infested  the  seas,  a  small  merchantman  laden  with 
dairy  products,  was  being  pursued  by  an  ill-looking 
craft,  swift  sailing  and  evidently  well  armed.  Cap- 
ture seemed  Inevitable,  and  the  captain  of  the  mer- 
chantman had  made  up  his  mind  to  surrender.  But 
one  of  his  crew  hit  upon  a  clever  scheme.  Several 
tubs  of  butter  were  brought  up  from  the  hold,  and 
the  sides  and  deck  of  the  ship,  save  for  a  little 
space  about  the  companlonway,  were  liberally 
smeared  with  the  contents.  When  the  pirates — 
But  never  mind  the  rest  of  that  story.  Here  is 
a  second. 

Years  ago,  when  robbers  were  a  terror  to  the 
highways  of  England,  a  party  of  gentlemen  and 
ladies  were  traveling  by  coach  to  London.  As  they 
became  better  acquainted,  they  fell  Into  conversa- 
tion; and  as  was  quite  natural,  their  talk  drifted 
toward  robberies  and  what  should  be  done  If  the 
coach  were  attacked.  All  were  more  or  less  ner- 
vous, especially  one  gentleman  who  confessed  that 
he  had  with  him  twenty  pounds.  A  lady  more 
calm  than  the  rest  suggested  that  he  hide  his  money 


STORY-TELLING  89 

In  his  boots,  a  bit  of  advice  which  he  acted  upon  at 
once. 

Not  many  minutes  later  the  robbers  actually 
appeared.  The  door  was  thrown  open,  and  a 
masked  villain  demanded  money.  Thereupon  the 
lady  spoke  up  promptly  and  said,  "  You  will  find 
what  you  want  In  that  gentleman's  boots."  Off 
came  the  boots,  and  away  went  the  robber,  evi- 
dently satisfied  with  his  find.  When  asked  to  ex- 
plain her  seemingly  unpardonable  conduct,  the  lady 
declined,  for  the  time  being,  but  Invited  all  the 
passengers  to  dine  with  her  the  following  evening 
at  her  London  home.  After  dinner  she  would  ex- 
plain all  to  their  complete  satisfaction. 


EXERCISE  48 

Written 

Complete  either  of  these  stories^  adding  details 
supplied  by  your  imagination,  and  introducing 
conversation  wherever  possible.  Perhaps  you  will 
prefer  to  tell  your  story  in  the  first  person,  pre- 
tending that  you  are  the  nervous  gentleman  who 
lost  his  money,  or  the  outwitted  pirate. 


EXERCISE  49 

Written 

Let  each  pupil  bring  to  class  four-fifths  of  a 
short  story.    After  each  has  told  his  fragment  of 


90  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION 

a  tale,  let  the  rest  of  the  class  try  to  invent  an 
appropriate  ending. 


EXERCISE  50 

Written 

Write  a  short  story  based  upon  one  of  the  fol- 
lowing: 

I.  John  and  his  sister  are  standing  in  a  badly  crowded 
street-car.  He  slyly  removes  her  purse  from  her  jacket 
pocket,  meaning  to  tease  her  later  on  when  she  discovers 
her  loss.  But  by  mistake  his  hand  goes  into  the  wrong 
pocket — not  his  sister's  at  all.  Discovering  what  he  has 
done,  an  hour  later,  he  tries  to  find  out  whose  money  he 
has  stolen. 

V  2.  Articles  unclaimed  at  the  custom  house  are  after 
a  while  auctioned  off.  A  bed-quilt  was  bought  by  a  poor 
man  at  an  auction.  After  being  used  for  many  years,  it 
was  ripped  open  and  found  to  contain . 

3.  A  gentleman  returning  from  Canada  by  train 
brought  with  him  a  set  of  furs  for  his  wife.  Thinking  to 
avoid  paying  duty  on  them,  he  persuaded  a  stranger  sit- 
ting near  him  to  wear  them.  The  ruse  was  successful,  so 
far  as  deceiving  the  customs  officer  was  concerned,  but 
when  he  wished  the  lady  to  return  the  furs,  she  objected. 
How  did  the  incident  end? 

4.  Some  little  boys  were  sailing  a  clockwork  steamer 
on  a  small,  rectangular  reservoir.  Setting  the  rudder  at 
what  seemed  a  proper  angle,  they  launched  the  craft.  The 
boat  took  a  spiral  course,  and  finally  "  ran  down  "  in 
the  middle  of  the  reservoir,   too  far  from  shore  to  be 


STORY-TELLING  91 

rescued  by  the  stone-and-strlng  method.  The  boat 
leaked;  ft  must  be  rescued  quickly.  The  boys  could  not 
swim.     How  was  the  steamer  saved  ? 

5.  An  anarchist  plans  to  blow  up  the  state  capitol.  He 
is  crossing  the  park,  towards  dusk,  carrying  a  satchel 
containing  an  infernal  machine  securely  nailed  up  in  a 
neat  box  and  set  to  explode  in  one  hour.  Suddenly  fear 
or  repentance  seizes  the  anarchist;  he  must  rid  himself 
of  the  satchel,  placing  it  where  no  harm  will  be  done. 
He  does  not  understand  infernal  machines.  He  is  very 
nervous,  of  course.     What  does  he  do? 


J/ EXERCISE  51 
Written 

No  doubt  you  have  discovered  by  this  time  how 
difficult  it  is  to  make  characters  talk  In  a  natural 
manner.  Yet  the  life  of  a  story  Is  often  In  Its 
dialogue.  When  drawing  a  book  from  the  library, 
do  you  never  run  through  the  volume  hastily  to 
see  if  it  contains  a  liberal  amount  of  conversation? 
It  is  excellent  practice  to  imagine  what  various  peo- 
ple would  say  under  given  circumstances. 

Write  a  page  or  two  of  conversation  suggested 
by  the  titles  found  below.  Use  synonyms  of  He 
SAID,  to  avoid  monotony.  Throw  in  little  phrases 
here  and  there  telling  how  the  characters  say  this 
and  that — with  what  facial  expression,  what  ges- 
tures, what  tone  of  voice.  Bring  out  the  person- 
ality of  the  speakers. 


92  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION 

I.  Mary  helps  Emily  unpack  her  trunk.  They  talk. 
2.  Overheard  at  the  bargain  counter.  3.  A  recess  time 
chat.  4.  Just  before  the  game,  John  explains  things  to 
his  Aunt  Mary.  Aunt  Mary  is  from  the  country.  5.  A 
schoolboy  tries  to  persuade  his  father  to  buy  him  a  canoe. 
6.  Two  tramps  plan  the  day's  campaign.  7.  Just  before 
the  battle.  8.  A  woman  with  four  children  and  many 
bundles  boards  a  train.  Mary  wants  a  drink,  Tommy 
asks  questions,  etc.,  etc.  9.  Two  dogs  discuss  their  mas- 
ter. 10.  The  defeated  football  captain  is  consoled  by  his 
mates.  11.  Conversation  between  a  deaf  lady  and  a 
street-car  conductor.  12.  A  playground  quarrel.  13.  A 
country  boy  and  a  city  boy  praise  their  schools.  14.  Tom 
Sawyer  and  Little  Lord  Fauntleroy. 


EXERCISE  52 

Written 

Oftentimes  in  plays,  and  in  story-books  too,  a 
character  is  made  to  talk  to  himself — think  out 
loud.  Talking  to  one's  self  is  called  soliloquy.  It 
is  an  ingenious  device,  as  you  can  easily  see.  But 
soliloquy  is  more  difficult  than  dialogue. 

Imagine  any  one  of  the  following  persons  or 
things  thinking  aloud,  first  telling  in  a  sentence  or 
two  the  circumstances  under  which  the  soliloquy 
occurs. 

I.  The  waste-basket.  2.  The  school  clock.  3.  A 
football.  4.  A  show-window  model.  5.  A  parrot  at  the 
bird-store.  6.  The  family  cat.  7.  The  striker.  8.  An 
old  lady  knitting.     9.  A  ragged  man  who  cannot  find 


STORY-TELLING  93 

employment.  lo.  The  ragpicker,  ii.  The  West  Wind. 
12.  An  ink-bottle.  13.  An  old  sailor.  14.  A  broken 
paddle.  15.  A  mirror.  16.  A  cake  of  ice  in  the  refrig- 
erator.    17.  A  worn  doorstep. 

EXERCISE  53 

Written 

In  the  eighteenth  century  it  was  the  fashion  to 
tell  stories  In  diary  form.  Sometimes  letters  were 
Introduced.  High  school  pupils  of  the  present 
day  occasionally  employ  this  device  with  success, 
turning  out  short  stories  that  are  bright  and  read- 
able. Perhaps  you  can  do  what  others  of  your 
years  have  done. 

Write  a  few  pages  made  up  of  extracts  from  an 
imaginary  diary.  Do  not  try  to  tell  a  story ,  unless 
this  comes  easily  to  you,  but  try  to  make  what 
you  write  reveal  character — make  the  reader  ac- 
quainted with  the  one  whose  diary  is  presented. 
Perhaps  the  following  titles  will  prove  suggestive, 

I.  The  diary  of  a  small  boy.  2.  The  confessions  of  a 
schoolgirl.  3.  The  diary  of  a  yellow  dog.  4.  The  diary 
of  a  soldier.     5.  The  diary  of  an  electric  light. 

EXERCISE  54 
Written 

It  Is  a  good  plan  occasionally  to  attempt  a  short 
narrative  of  the  fairy-tale  order,  giving  the  imag- 


94  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION 

Inatlon  full  sweep.  Stop  at  nothing  preposterous ; 
remember  that  in  the  realm  of  make-believe  all 
things  are  possible. 

Write  a  short  story  suggested  by  one  of  the  fol- 
lowing titles, 

I.  The  interior  of  an  Iceberg.  2.  The  land  where  lost 
things  go.  3.  Riding  on  the  back  of  the  North  Wind. 
4.  South-east  of  Nowhere.  5.  The  manuscript  found 
in  a  bottle.  6.  Seaweed  Villa.  7.  A  day  in  an  airship. 
8.  The  subterranean  passages  recently  discovered  beneath 
our  town.  9.  To  the  center  of  the  earth  and  back.  10. 
A  fairy  tale  brought  up  to  date.  11.  Told  by  a  piece  of 
driftwood.     12.  Ink-bottle  imps  and  how  they  live. 


V  EXERCISE  55 
Written 

Facing  page  64  is  a  reproduction  of  Herkomer's 
The  Last  Muster.  Who  are  these  aged  men,  and 
for  what  purpose  are  they  assembled?  As  your 
eye  wanders  from  face  to  face,  to  what  central 
figure  does  It  Inevitably  return?  What  Is  the 
meaning  of  the  title? 

Perform  one  of  the  following  tasks:  (i)  De- 
scribe the  picture  as  a  whole.  (2)  Describe  in 
detail  one  or  two  figures.  (3)  Invent  a  story  sug- 
gested by  the  picture. 


CHAPTER  XI 
MISCELLANEOUS 

Life  is  full  of  contrasts:  tears  and  laughter, 
wisdom  and  folly,  strength  and  weakness,  success 
and  failure,  and  so  on  and  on  through  the  round  of 
human  experience.  In  nature  It  Is  the  same. 
Darkness  follows  light  and  light  follows  darkness. 
Summer  brings  heat,  winter  snow  and  Ice.  Beneath 
the  lofty  mountain  peaks  which  battle  with  every 
wind  that  blows.  He  peaceful  green  valleys.  The 
ocean  is  now  an  angry  demon,  now  a  mild,  sleepy 
giant. 

Writers  have  a  way  of  using  contrast  to  make 
their  compositions  strong  and  effective.  They 
know  that  white  never  looks  more  pure  than  when 
placed  against  something  black  and  repulsive ;  that 
the  hero  will  not  seem  really  heroic  unless  there  is 
a  villain  about;  that  the  happy  ending  will  not  be 
appreciated  unless  it  comes  after  many  chapters 
full  of  sorrow  and  struggle.  All  this  you  have 
noticed  many  times,  for  the  device  is  a  common 
one;  but  it  may  not  have  occurred  to  you  to  use  it 
in  your  compositions.  Notice  how  effectively  it  is 
employed  in  this  schoolgirl  theme. 

95 


96  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION 

Before  and  After 

April  9. — Oh,  I  am  so  tired  to-day.  I  came  down  to 
breakfast,  and  afterwards  I  must  have  walked  quite  half 
a  mile.  I  suppose  I  ought  to  take  an  egg,  but  some- 
how I  don't  want  one.  No,  I  do  not  know  where  your 
hat  is,  George.  Find  it  yourself.  By  the  bye,  George, 
get  me  that  book  I  was  reading.  I  don't  know  where  it 
is.  Oh,  you  have  plenty  of  time,  for  it  is  only  ten  min- 
utes past  one.  After  all,  what  does  it  matter  if  you  are 
a  little  late  to  school?  Everybody  seems  to  be  going  to 
school.  I  wish  I  were.  I  wish  I  could  even  go  to  the 
grammar  school;  anything  would  be  better  than  doing 
nothing!  The  doctor  is  horrid  not  to  let  me  go.  If  I 
ever  do  go,  I  shall  be  older  than  every  one  else.  No, 
I  do  not  want  an  egg-nog;  a  raw  egg  goes  down 
more  easily.  Well,  I  might  as  well  try  to  finish  this 
book. 

November  9. — Mother,  have  you  seen  my  gloves? 
They  are  not  with  my  coat  and  hat.  Oh,  yes,  here  they 
are  in  my  muff.  Now  I  can't  find  my  hat-pins.  Never 
mind;  I  have  not  time  to  look  for  them.  Is  breakfast 
never  to  be  ready?  I  am  sure  I  shall  be  late  if  it  is  not 
ready.  Need  I  eat  an  egg?  There  is  not  time  to  eat  an 
egg  and  porridge  too.  Very  well,  I  will.  I  am  afraid  I 
shall  not  know  my  French.  I  only  read  it  over.  Is 
"  J'ai  tombe  "  correct,  or  is  "  Je  suis  tombe  "  ?  Oh,  yes, 
of  course;  I  remember  now.  I  can't  eat  any  more,  truly. 
Now  where  are  my  books?  Bother!  I  forgot  to  sharpen 
those  pencils.  I  shall  have  to  do  it  at  school.  By  the 
bye,  which  should  one  say,  "will  I"  or  "shall  I"?  I 
am  sure  that  clock  is  slow.  It  must  be  more  than  five 
minutes  past  eight.     Won't  it  be  fun  to-day,  for  I  have 


MISCELLANEOUS  97 

five  recitations  instead  of  three!     I  hope  I  won't  be  late. 
Good-bye.     Good-bye. 

Probably  you  would  find  it  somewhat  difficult 
to  write  a  composition  similar  to  this  theme ;  for  it 
is  what  is  called  a  monologue,  a  kind  of  writing 
which  requires  unusual  ability.  It  is  not  at  all 
difficult,  however,  to  bring  out  clearly  a  striking 
contrast. 


^  EXERCISE  56 

Written 

Write  a  two-  or  three-paragraph  composition  to 
which  you  can  give  the  title  A  Contrast,  The  fol- 
lowing may  suggest  material, 

I.  The  football  player  as  he  looks  and  feels  when  going 
to  his  first  game,  and  as  he  looks  and  feels  when  returning. 
2.  The  dwelling  as  it  looked  just  before  the  fire  broke 
out,  and  the  ruins  which  remained  an  hour  later.  3.  The 
small  boy  just  before  and  just  after  Thanksgiving  dinner. 
4.  A  thrifty  farm  and  a  deserted  farm.  5.  The  mill- 
pond,  winter  and  summer.  6.  Going  fishing  and  coming 
home.  7.  A  stuffy  parlor,  and  one  that  Isn't  stuffy.  8. 
Tommy's  every-day  table  manners  and  his  company  man- 
ners. 9.  Going  to  school  and  returning  from  school. 
10.  What  the  boy  looking  through  the  window  at  the 
bird-store  thought  of  the  parrot,  and  what  the  parrot 
thought  of  the  boy.  11.  The  good  traits  and  the  bad 
traits  of  my  best  friend.  12.  My  party  gown  before  and 
after  being  caught   by  a  summer  shower.     13.  A  ship 


98  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION 

starting  on  a  long  cruise,  and  the  same  ship  returning  to 
harbor.  14.  The  mountain  side  as  it  looked  before  and 
after  being  swept  by  a  fire.  15.  How  the  victors  felt  and 
how  the  vanquished  felt.  16.  A  story-book  as  it  looked 
when  first  it  came  from  the  store,  and  as  it  looked  years 
afterward.  17.  The  beggar  and  the  proud  banker.  18. 
June  and  November.  19.  Saturday  and  Sunday.  20. 
A  city  street,  6  a.m.  and  6  p.m.  21.  A  country  road 
and  a  city  thoroughfare.  22.  The  skyscraper  and  the 
cobbler's  shop.  23.  The  village  elm  and  the  field  daisy. 
24.  The  poor  man's  parlor  and  the  rich  man's.  25.  A 
meal  in  the  woods  and  an  elaborate  course  dinner.  26. 
The  athletic  field  just  before  and  just  after  a  great  game. 
27.  The  schoolroom,  10  a.m.  and  10  p.m. 


EXERCISE  57 

Written 

Facing  page  6^  is  a  photograph  of  a  wintry 
scene  in  the  country.  Describe  it  as  accurately  and 
feelingly  as  you  can;  then  describe  the  same  scene 
as  you  fancy  it  may  appear  in  midsummer. 


EXERCISE  58 

Written 

Opposite  page  g6  is  a  picture  entitled  the  Vn- 
traveled  Road.  Describe  the  scene  in  not  more 
than  fifty  words.     Then  describe  a  scene  as  differ- 


MISCELLANEOUS  99 

ent  from  this  as  you  can  imagine — a  crowded  city 
street  in  midsummer,  for  example. 


EXERCISE  59 
Oral 

Contrast  calls  for  extremes.  The  two  things 
compared,  though  alike  in  some  respects,  must  be 
strikingly  different  in  other  respects.  And  therein 
lies  a  grave  danger;  for  in  our  eagerness  to  make 
a  contrast  sharp  and  unmistakable,  we  are  some- 
times led  to  exaggerate,  to  picture  things  worse  or 
better  than  they  really  are.  The  first  rule  in  com- 
position is  Tell  the  truth.  Honesty  underlies  all 
art. 

Exercise  59  involves  comparison,  but  not  neces- 
sarily sharp  contrast.  It  calls,  however,  for  an 
eye,  a  mind,  which  detects  differences,  and  no  little 
ability  to  point  out  clearly  to  others  what  the  eye 
and  the  mind  have  discovered.  The  task  is  far 
more  difficult  than  at  first  appears. 

Prepare  a  talk,  from  five  to  ten  minutes  long, 
suggested  by  some  topic  in  the  list  below.  If  you 
can  make  yourself  clearer  by  means  of  rough  illus- 
trations, use  the  blackboard. 

I.  Three  old  coins.  2.  Three  rare  stamps.  3.  Two 
beauties  from  my  collection  of  butterflies.  4.  Two  or 
three  picture  postals.  5.  Easy-chairs  that  I  have  tried. 
6.  Several  kinds  of  mouse-traps.     7.  Three  ways  of  heat- 


loo  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION 

ing  houses.  8.  Ways  of  lighting  rooms.  9.  Some  of 
the  latest  styles  of  hats.  10.  Various  kinds  of  summer- 
ing places.  II.  Birds'  nests.  12.  Street  entertainers. 
13.  What  I  like  best  in  three  of  my  friends.  14.  Two 
styles  of  automobiles.  15.  The  duties  of  quarter-back 
compared  with  those  of  full-back.  16.  The  woods  at 
different  seasons  of  the  year.  17.  Two  attractive  maga- 
zine-covers. 


^EXERCISE  60 
Written 

It  Is  by  no  means  easy  to  describe  outward  ap- 
pearances— what  the  eye  sees;  but  It  Is  far  more 
difficult  to  describe  emotions.  Perhaps  the  best 
thing  about  the  composition  quoted  on  page  96  Is 
that  It  tells  us  vividly  how  the  girl  who  wrote  It 
felt  on  two  occasions. 

Write  a  short  composition — a  single  para- 
graph will  do — to  which  you  can  give  the  title 
How  I  feel.  Use  the  present  tense.  Refer  to  the 
list  below  for  suggestions. 

I.  How  I  feel  when  about  to  get  up  on  a  frosty  morn- 
ing. 2.  Mustering  courage  to  "  duck  under  "  when  in 
swimming.  3.  When  I  have  not  prepared  my  lesson  and 
expect  to  be  called  on  next.  4.  When  I  am  obliged  to 
work  Saturday  morning  before  I  can  play.  5.  When  I 
am  taking  my  music  lessons.  6.  When  I  am  having  my 
picture  taken.  7.  What  I  think  about  when  waiting 
my  turn  at  the  dentist's.  8.  When  we  have  company  to 
dinner.     9.  When  dinner  is  late  and  I  am  "  hungry  as 


MISCELLANEOUS  loi 

a  bear."  lO.  When  the  whistle  blows  announcing  that 
there  will  be  no  school,  ii.  When  I  am  caught  in  a 
shower.  12.  When  I  find,  on  boarding  a  car,  that  I  have 
no  money  with  me.  13.  When  I  am  entertaining  a  caller 
whom  I  do  not  like.  14.  When  I  am  trying  to  get  to 
sleep.  15.  When  I  am  trying  to  write  a  composition 
and  can  think  of  nothing  to  say. 

Not  long  ago  the  members  of  a  first-year  class 
were  invited  to  engage  in  a  friendly  competition 
to  see  who  could  write  the  composition  best  de- 
serving the  title  Wet!  The  terms  of  the  compe- 
tition were  exceedingly  simple.  The  theme  might 
be  ten  words  long  or  five  hundred.  It  might  take 
the  form  of  a  story,  or  it  might  be  an  account  of 
a  personal  experience,  or  it  might  be  a  bit  of  de- 
scription. The  one  thing  to  be  kept  in  mind  was 
that  the  composition  should  be  very  wet  indeed 
and  give  the  reader  the  sensation  of  wetness.  The 
theme  given  below  was  selected  by  the  class  as 
being  the  best  handed  in. 

Wet! 

On  a  wet  day  during  the  freshets  the  snow  becomes 
slush,  the  river  rushes  past  bearing  large  lumps  of  fast- 
melting  ice,  the  streets  become  veritable  rivers,  and  as 
for  the  people  .    .    . ! 

There  comes  a  man  carrying  an  umbrella  from  which 
streams  of  water  fall.  He  rushes  madly  by,  as  if  he 
would  get  less  wet  when  running;  but  in  trying  to  avoid 
an  unusually  large  puddle  he  steps  off  the  sidewalk  into 


102  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION 

the  wet  snow,  from  which  he  emerges  minus  a  rubber 
and  wetter  than  before.  As  he  disappears  we  see  half 
a  dozen  girls  crowded  under  one  umbrella,  their  hair 
sticking  in  wisps  to  their  faces,  their  skirts  held  very 
high,  and  their  soaking  "  picture  hats  "  hanging  limply 
over  their  eyes.  As  they  cross  the  street  (or  canal),  a 
cart  passes  splashing  mud  and  water  over  them,  and  so 
confusing  a  bicycler  that  his  wheel  slips  on  the  slithery 
pavement,  overturning  him  into  the  flowing  brook  of  a 
gutter.  Now  passes  an  automobile  in  which  sit  creatures 
in  rubber  coats  and  hats  down  which  flow  countless 
rivulets  ending  in  a  large  puddle  in  each  lap.  Here, 
walking  or  rather  plodding  along,  goes  a  man  the  very 
picture  of  wretchedness.  His  trousers  cling  to  him,  his 
once  fine  silk  hat  looks  like  a  private  waterfall,  and  he 
has  in  disgust  at  last  folded  his  umbrella.  By  his  side  is  a 
little  lady  who  looks  as  if  she  had  just  been  drowned,  lead- 
ing a  poor  bedraggled  dog  something  like  a  wash-cloth. 

Still  it  rains,  and  still  it  thaws,  and  still  the  gutters 
leak;  and  on  the  ceilings  come  damp  spots;  and  always 
from  everywhere  comes  a  steady  drip,  drip,  drip. 

This  composition  Is  by  no  means  perfect,  but  in 
some  respects  It  Is  well  done.  We  feel  that  It  de- 
serves Its  title.  Notice  how  many  wet  words  there 
are  In  It,  the  king  of  them  all  being  the  uncom- 
mon term  slithery.  The  street  Is  a  river,  the  gut- 
ter a  brook,  the  silk  hat  a  "  private  waterfall,"  the 
dog  "  something  like  a  wash-cloth  ";  and  through 
it  all  Is  the  drip,  drip,  drip  of  the  ceaseless  rain. 
The  reader  cannot  help  feeling  uncomfortably 
moist. 


MISCELLANEOUS  103 

Such  exercises  are  valuable,  for  they  teach  us 
how  to  make  what  we  write  take  hold  of  the  reader. 
Too  often  our  compositions  are  painfully  correct 
and  cover  a  great  deal  of  ground,  but  still  do  not 
make  the  reader  feel  as  we  want  him  to  feel.  We 
witness  an  accident  so  terrible  that  the  memory  of 
it  haunts  us  day  and  night.  We  cannot  get  it  out 
of  our  minds.  But  when  we  give  an  account  of  it, 
the  reader  does  not  shudder.  We  have  a  jolly 
good  time  out  in  the  woods,  we  try  to  cook  a  dinner 
with  humorous  results,  we  get  lost;  but  when  we 
write  an  account  of  It  all,  how  tame  and  uninter- 
esting it  seems!  That  is  because  we  have  not 
learned  to  say  I  will  Interest  the  reader.  He  shall 
see  things  as  I  have  seen  them.  I  will  make  him 
feel  as  I  have  felt. 


«>  EXERCISE  61 

Written 

Write  a  composition,  long  or  short  as  you  please, 
that  will  really  deserve  one  of  the  following  titles. 
Make  the  composition  take  hold. 

I.  Wet.  2.  Dry.  3.  Hot.  4.  Cold.  5.  Hungry. 
6.  Tired.  7.  Discouraged.  8.  Dusty.  9.  Neat.  10. 
Crafty.  11.  Cruel.  12.  Homesick.  13.  Dark.  14. 
Sunshine.  15.  Joy.  16.  Greedy.  17.  Breezy.  18. 
Pride. 


I04  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION  ^ 

EXERCISE  62 
Written 

Doubtless  many  of  us  have  thought  at  times 
how  easy  It  would  be  to  write  Interesting  compo- 
sitions If  only  we  could  go  where  no  one  else  has 
goae  and  bring  back  accounts  of  strange  things — 
lands  and  people  whom  no  one  has  written  about. 
The  corner  of  the  world  with  which  we  are  ac- 
quainted seems  so  commonplace !  Perhaps  we  are 
partly  right  In  so  thinking,  though  It  should  be  re- 
membered that  great  writers  find  a  way  of  making 
common  things  Interesting.  At  any  rate,  few  of 
us  can  ever  hope  to  travel  to  strange  lands;  so 
why  not  be  content  to  stay  at  home  and  use  our 
Imagination,  making  homely  things  seem  of  greater 
value  than  they  really  are? 

Imagine  that  you  are  a  great  explorer  sent  out 
by  some  learned  society.  Be  thorough,  and  bring 
back  a  carefully  prepared  report.  Here  are  places 
to  investigate. 

I.  The  refrigerator.  2.  The  pantry.  3.  The  cellar. 
4.  The  attic.  5.  My  neighbor's  back  yard.  6.  Brother's 
den.  7.  The  family  album.  8.  A  neglected  book-shelf. 
9.  A  table  drawer.  10.  A  waste-basket.  11.  A  vacant 
lot.  12.  A  near-by  brook.  13.  An  empty  house.  14. 
A  chest  of  old  toys.  15.  A  woodshed.  16.  A  tree.  17. 
A  church  spire.  18.  A  barn.  19.  A  house-boat.  20. 
The  schoolroom. 


MISCELLANEOUS  105 

EXERCISE  63 
Written 

The  preceding  exercise  invited  you  to  write 
about  things  so  common  and  homely  that  you  may 
have  thought  the  task  hardly  worth  performing. 
But  the  next  exercise  should  command  your  very 
best  effort,  for  It  Is  one  which  for  ages  writers 
great  and  small  have  considered  worth  while. 

Write  a  composition^  somewhat  longer  than 
those  called  for  in  previous  exercises^  describing 
the  doings  of  nature.  Tell  nothing  which  you 
have  not  yourself  actually  observed.  Use  the 
present  tense.     Here  are  suggestive  topics. 

I.  A  glorious  sunset.  2.  How  day  comes.  3.  An 
ice-storm.  4.  A  thunder-storm.  5.  The  story  of  a  bliz- 
zard. 6.  A  hot  day.  7.  A  spring  freshet.  8.  Watch- 
ing the  clouds.  9.  The  woods  during  a  storm.  10.  A 
bit  of  April  weather.     11.  The  fog.     12.  A  tornado. 


EXERCISE  64 

Written 

Write  a  composition  similar  to  the  preceding 
on  a  topic  chosen  from  the  following  list.  Let  it 
be  a  test  of  your  power  to  observe  accurately.  Use 
the  present  tense. 

I.  Watching  a  spider.  2.  How  school  assembles.  3. 
Watching  the  small  boys  play.     4.  The  approach  of  a 


io6  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION 

ship.  5.  Watching  the  sparrows.  6.  Watching  the 
postman.  7.  Waiting  for  the  papers.  8.  The  arrival 
and  departure  of  a  train.  9.  Half  an  hour  from  the  life 
of  my  dog.  10.  A  balky  horse.  11.  A  busy  street  cor- 
ner. 12.  At  the  auction.  13.  When  they  clean  house 
next  door. 


EXERCISE  65 

Written 

Write  a  short  story  suggested  by  Geofroy^s  The 
Visit,  facing  page  112.  Or  if  you  find  story-writ- 
ing too  difficult,  describe  the  picture  as  sympatheti- 
cally as  you  can. 


PART  II 

DICTIONARY  AND  GRAMMAR 


CHAPTER  XII 
THE    DICTIONARY 

The  English  language  Is  made  up  of  hundreds 
of  thousands  of  words.  Not  all  of  these  are  In 
use  to-day;  some  are  found  only  In  very  old  books, 
and  still  others  are  slowly  dying.  When  the 
spInnlng-wheel  went  out  of  use,  a  small  group 
of  spInnlng-wheel  terms  slipped  away  because 
there  was  nothing  for  them  to  do.  When  the 
stage-coach  disappeared,  along  with  it  went  a 
little  vocabulary  pertaining  to  stage-coach  things. 
Every  important  Invention,  we  may  almost  say 
every  change  in  fashion,  retires,  sometimes  perma- 
nently, a  few  words — renders  them  obsolete. 

Related  in  a  way  to  obsolete  words  are  not  a 
few  terms  that  are  in  every-day  use,  yet  are  found 
in  some  small  province  only.  The  English-speak- 
ing people  are  widely  scattered;  and  though  all 
have  the  same  names  for  most  things,  still  each 
country,  each  section  of  a  country,  each  com- 
munity even,  has  a  few  words  that  are  not  found 
elsewhere,  or  if  found  elsewhere,  then  with  differ- 
ent meanings.  There  are  terms  peculiar  to  the 
English  colonies  in  Africa,  for  example.  New 
Englanders  employ  a  few  terms  that  sound  strange 

109 


no        DICTIONARY  AND  GRAMMAR 

to  the  ear  of  the  Southerner.  Provincialisms,  as 
such  stay-at-home  words  are  called,  are  to  be 
found  everywhere,  doing  good  service,  but  in  a 
narrow  field. 

Every  art,  trade,  occupation,  science  has  its 
separate  vocabulary  of  technical  terms.  The  law- 
yer employs  many  expressions  that  are  meaning- 
less to  most  of  us;  so  too  does  the  doctor.  It  is 
said  that  the  student  of  zoology  who  reads  all 
that  has  been  written  on  this  branch  of  science  will 
find  over  one  hundred  thousand  terms  employed, 
comparatively  few  of  which  are  in  common  use. 
Every  line  of  manufacture,  every  branch  of  sport 
even,  has  its  technical  terms.  They  do  not  stay  at 
home  as  do  provincialisms,  but  each  group  Is  of 
special  service  to  some  one  class  of  individuals. 

A  recently  published  dictionary  defines  over 
three  hundred  thousand  terms,  all  of  which.  It  is 
claimed,  are  In  active  use  to-day  or  are  to  be  found 
In  books  that  English-speaking  people  may  care  to 
read.  This  number  is  amazing,  especially  when 
we  bear  In  mind  that  many  obsolete  and  provincial 
words  and  a  far  greater  number  of  technical  terms 
have  been  excluded.  The  dictionary  Is  even  more 
select  than  this.  Every  day  new  words  come  Into 
existence.  When  things  are  discovered  or  in- 
vented, they  must  be  named.  How  many  terms 
associated  with  steam  and  electricity  were  un- 
known a  century  ago !  Exploration,  trade,  manu- 
facture, science,  all  are  contributing  each  year  a 
large  number  of  new  words.     But  not  all  these 


THE  DICTIONARY  iii 

find  their  way  at  once  into  the  dictionary.  They 
must  first  be  tried,  passed  about  from  mouth  to 
mouth  for  a  time,  experimented  with,  till  it  is  rea- 
sonably sure  that  they  are  really  needed. 

Not  only  is  the  dictionary  cautious  in  accepting 
newly  coined  words,  as  they  are  called ;  it  is  care- 
ful, though  perhaps  not  sufficiently  so,  about  ad- 
mitting many  expressions  commonly  heard  on  the 
street  or  wherever  people  talk  loosely — words 
that  are  exceedingly  coarse  and  vulgar,  others  that 
are  what  we  know  as  slang.  Such  colloquial  or 
loose  expressions  are  seldom  found  in  print.  They 
dwell  on  the  outskirts  of  respectability,  unfit  to 
appear  in  good  society;  or  we  may  think  of  them 
as  vagrants.  Occasionally  a  word  of  this  sort 
works  its  way  out  of  the  slums  of  speech  and  at 
last  gains  admittance  to  the  dictionary;  yet  where 
one  succeeds  in  living  down  its  low  origin,  hun- 
dreds remain  but  mouth-words,  without  respecta- 
bility.    Most  of  them  live  but  a  short  time. 

The  immensity  of  the  English  language,  even 
when  we  exclude  the  relatively  unimportant 
groups  of  words  just  considered — the  obsolete, 
the  provincial,  the  technical,  the  newly  coined,  the 
colloquial  or  loose — is  difficult  to  realize,  except 
as  one  compares  it  with  his  own  scant  vocabulary. 
Shakespeare,  we  are  told,  used  at  least  fifteen 
thousand  different  words,  Milton  eight  thousand. 
The  average  man  of  to-day,  it  is  estimated,  em- 
ploys about  five  thousand.  But  how  about  you? 
How  much  of  the  English  language  do  you  pos- 


112         DICTIONARY  AND  GRAMMAR 

sess  ?  In  a  way,  It  is  all  yours ;  in  a  truer  sense,  no 
one  really  owns  a  word  till  he  has  mastered  it — 
can  pronounce  it,  spell  it,  and  knows  precisely 
what  it  means.  If  you  were  to  attempt  to  make 
a  dictionary  and  record  in  it  simply  the  words 
you  have  thoroughly  mastered,  the  words  which 
you  really  own,  what  would  be  the  result? 

Fortunately  no  one  will  ever  set  a  task  so  unrea- 
sonable. Every  schoolboy  knows  that  his  vocab- 
ulary is  a  small  one,  that  he  misspells,  mispro- 
nounces, misuses  many  of  the  terms  he  commonly 
employs.  It  is  no  disgrace  to  be  young;  most  of 
the  blunders,  careless  mistakes  which  fall  from 
the  lips  of  schoolboys  and  schoolgirls,  or  slip  from 
their  pens  in  writing  letters,  are  pardonable.  Yet 
a  time  should  come,  and  usually  does  come,  when 
the  average  youth  begins  to  feel  ashamed  when  he 
blunders  in  his  speech.  He  wants  to  put  away 
childish  errors.  He  prefers  not  to  misspell,  mis- 
pronounce, and  misuse  words.  Perhaps  someone 
has  laughed  at  him  for  spelling  college  with  a  d^ 
or  for  pronouncing  gentlemen  as  if  it  were  spelled 
genlemun,  or  for  writing  Mary's  voice  was  edible 
as  far  as  the  corner,  or  for  closing  a  letter  with 
Yours  respectively.  It  is  not  pleasant  to  be 
laughed  at. 

Reforming  one's  speech,  however,  is  not  an 
easy  matter.  Many  of  the  words  found  in  the 
youth's  vocabulary  have  been  picked  up  by  the  ear, 
on  the  street,  on  the  playground;  the  eye  may 
never  have  seen  them  in  the  printed  page.     And 


By  permUsiou  of  tha  Cosmos  Picturtig  Co. 

The  Visit 


THE  DICTIONARY  113 

many  words  are  so  commonly  mispronounced,  or 
indistinctly  uttered,  or  improperly  employed,  that 
the  ear  does  not  receive  what  is  correct.  Other 
terms  are  acquired  from  reading;  but  the  young 
reader  rushes  along  so  rapidly  that  the  eye  merely 
glances  at  words  and  does  not  hesitate  to  skip 
whatever  looks  difficult  in  the  way  of  long  or 
strange  expressions.  In  this  most  natural  manner 
the  mind  receives  many  words  which  have  been 
imperfectly  seen;  the  memory  is  crowded  with 
wrong  or  indistinct  impressions.  It  is  indeed  dif- 
ficult, where  so  much  needs  correcting,  to  deter- 
mine where  and  how  to  begin.  Here  are  a  few 
simple  suggestions. 

First,  be  convinced  that  the  undertaking  is 
worth  while.  Every  word  mastered  is  a  word 
owned;  it  is  so  much  power.  We  need  all  the 
power  we  can  get,  in  this  busy  age.  A  large 
vocabulary  may  not  be  required  for  the  work  you 
are  to  do,  but  a  fully  mastered  vocabulary  is  nec- 
essary. Mistakes  in  speech  are  costly;  they  cause 
delays  and  misunderstandings.  Have  too  a  little 
pride  in  the  matter.  Incorrect  speech  is  the  badge 
of  illiteracy. 

Second,  be  more  careful  about  what  you  read 
and  how  you  read.  Form  the  habit  of  reading 
aloud  ten  minutes  every  day,  scanning  each  word 
closely,  pronouncing  distinctly,  bringing  out  clearly 
the  meaning  of  each  sentence.  No  book  is  better 
for  this  kind  of  drill  than  the  Bible,  but  any  good 
book  will  do,  or  even  the  daily  newspaper.    Mem- 


114        DICTIONARY  AND  GRAMMAR 

orlze  a  short  poem,  now  and  then,  or  a  paragraph 
of  vigorous  prose.  The  purpose  of  exercise  of 
this  sort  Is  to  train  the  eye  and  the  ear  and  the 
tongue  to  do  their  work  more  carefully. 

Third,  take  pains  to  use  language  correctly 
when  talking  and  writing.  Break  yourself  of  the 
habit  of  careless  expression.  The  little  training 
received  In  school  will  amount  to  nothing.  If  you 
permit  yourself  to  abuse  language  when  you  are 
on  the  street  or  at  home.  Correct  expression 
comes  through  habit.  Keep  in  training  all  the 
time. 

Finally,  try  to  become  Interested  In  words; 
learn  to  respect  them.  Studying  coins  or  stamps 
Is  not  a  fooHsh  fad,  neither  Is  collecting  picture 
postals;  but  words  are  more  Interesting  than  coins 
or  stamps  or  postals,  and  are  better  worth  study- 
ing. On  the  Study  of  Words,  by  Archbishop 
Trench,  though  written  years  ago,  is  a  most  de- 
lightful book  for  present-day  readers.  Words  and 
their  Ways  in  English  Speech,  by  Greenough  and 
KIttredge,  a  more  recent  work,  contains  many  In- 
teresting chapters.  But  the  best  book  of  all  Is  the 
dictionary  itself.  By  all  means  own  a  good  one 
and  learn  how  to  use  It. 

Looked  at  In  one  way,  the  dictionary  Is  a  vast 
collection  of  condensed  compositions,  each  telling 
all  that  the  average  person  needs  to  know  about 
some  word:  how  It  is  spelled  and  pronounced, 
and  what  are  its  meanings.  Frequently  a  quota- 
tion containing  the  word  properly  used  will  be 


THE  DICTIONARY  115 

given;  and  sometimes  a  group  of  synonyms,  or 
terms  which  have  nearly  the  same  meaning.  The 
dictionary  does  more  than  this.  Whenever  possi- 
ble, It  tells  the  life-story  of  a  word — where  It 
came  from,  what  It  meant  originally;  for  many 
words  change  In  meaning  from  age  to  age,  just  as 
a  person's  character  changes  during  his  lifetime. 

But  there  Is  another  way  of  regarding  the  dic- 
tionary. It  Is  a  great  law  book.  Ours  Is  a  free 
country,  yet  we  are  not  free  to  do  as  we  please. 
We  must  endure,  for  the  common  good,  restraint 
of  many  kinds.  Words  are  free ;  but  when  we  mis- 
use them  we  become  law-breakers.  One  has  no 
more  right  to  abuse  or  misuse  his  country's  lan- 
guage than  he  has  to  destroy  his  neighbor's  prop- 
erty. The  dictionary,  stern  book,  lays  down 
laws  regarding  spelling,  pronunciation,  meanings, 
which  word-respecting  people  obey. 

Form  the  habit,  then,  of  consulting  a  good, 
unabridged  dictionary.  See  what  the  law  says 
about  this  and  that  term  which  you  are  using 
commonly,  yet  with  a  suspicion  that  you  may  be 
using  It  Improperly.  Lay  down  the  book  you  are 
reading,  now  and  then,  and  look  up  the  meaning 
of  some  new  word.  If  an  expression  has  an  odd 
sound  to  your  ear,  and  you  find  yourself  wonder- 
ing where  It  came  from,  how  it  got  its  present 
meaning,  turn  to  the  dictionary.  Perhaps  It  will 
tell  you  precisely  what  you  wish  to  know.  Prac- 
tice of  this  kind  soon  becomes  fascinating,  for 
words  are  wonderful  when  studied. 


ii6        DICTIONARY  AND  GRAMMAR 


EXERCISE  66 

Reread  Chapter  XII  to  see  if  it  does  not  con- 
tain a  few  words  about  whose  meanings  you  are 
uncertain.  Before  consulting  the  dictionary,  try 
to  reason  out  for  yourself  what  each  word  must 
mean. 

EXERCISE  67 

Open  the  dictionary  at  random  and  select  an  in- 
teresting word.  Give,  in  complete  sentences,  all 
the  information  the  dictionary  supplies  concern- 
ing it. 

EXERCISE  68 

Without  consulting  a  dictionary,  try  to  dis- 
cover how  the  following  terms  became  a  part  of 
the  English  language.  What  other  words  of  this 
sort  can  you  suggest? 

grunt  snarl  click  chirp 

hiss  twitter  chatter  crackle 

mew  bang  chickadee  whiz 


EXERCISE  69 

The  follozving  are  representatives  of  a  class  of 
words  which  have  come  into  the  language  in  an 
interesting   way.      Try    to   discover   their  origin, 


THE  DICTIONARY 


117 


consulting  for  this  purpose  an  unabridged  diction- 
ary. 


italics 

martial 

bedlam 

derrick 

canary 

phaeton 

lynch 

artesian 

champagne 

volcano 

mackintosh 

guillotine 

meander 

cereal 

gingham 

pullman 

worsted 

panic 

damask 

pompadour 

cologne 

macadam 

dimity 

quixotic 

copper 

guy 

tantalize 

namby-pamby 

atlas 

babel 

calico 

colossal 

herculean 

tawdry 

cambric 

boycott 

EXERCISE  70 

Nearly  one-third  of  our  language  is,  directly  or 
indirectly,  of  Latin  origin;  but  every  nation  has 
contributed  a  few  terms.  Where  did  each  of  the 
following  originate?  First  guess,  then  consult  the 
dictionary. 


wigwam 

soprano 

lad 

czar 

potato 

adieu 

bungalow 

canoe 

tea 

postscript 

mosquito 

physics 

candy 

telephone 

tulip 

minister 

yacht 

chess 

ambassador 

crag 

sabbath 

snob 

daisy 

dairy 

EXERCISE  71 

Often  words  become  doubly  interesting  when 
their  derivation  is  known.    THIMBLE,  for  exam- 


ii8 


DICTIONARY  AND  GRAMMAR 


pie,  comes  from  an  Anglo-Saxon  word  thuma 
meaning  THUMB.  Was  the  thimble  once  worn  on 
the  thumb?  squirrel  is  from  a  Greek  word 
meaning  shadow-tail.  So  a  squirrel  is  an  animal 
that  casts  a  shadow  with  its  tail?  Look  up  the 
derivation  of  the  following. 


Emma 

miser 

' indent 

villain 

Margaret 

witch 

pope 

sophomore 

silly 

cunning 

curfew 

dandelion 

lunatic 

salary 

linen 

buxom 

cranberry 

style 

\  acrobat 

debate 

EXERCISE  72 

Sometimes  the  full  force  of  a  word  is  not  ap- 
preciated until  its  derivation  is  known,  dilapi- 
dated, for  example,  is  from  a  Latin  word  lapis 
meaning  a  stone,  and  the  prefix  Dis  meaning 
APART.  Knowing  this,  the  word  presents  to  the 
mind  a  picture  of  a  stone  building  tumbled  down. 
Consulting  a  good  dictionary,  try  to  discover  the 
original  meaning  of  the  following. 


December 

mayor              valedictory      Sunday 

manuscript 

centennial       alderman        Monday 

bisect 

^accumulate     journey           Tuesday 

phonograph 

circus               neighbor         Wednesday 

quadruped 

error             ^  arduous           Thursday 

bicycle 

>  eradicate          wealth             Friday 

Florida 

manufacture'  subterranean  Saturday 

THE  DICTIONARY  119 


EXERCISE  73 

The  words  in  the  first  two  columns  below  are 
from  the  French;  the  rest  are  from  the  Old  Eng- 
lish, or  Anglo-Saxon.  At  one  time  the  Norman- 
French  and  the  Anglo-Saxons  lived  side  by  side  in 
England.  Which  were  the  conquerors  and  which 
the  conquered  people? 

scepter  prince  spade  house 

throne  f)alace  rake  home 

royalty  treasurer  scythe  hearth 

court  duke  rye  oats 


EXERCISE  74 

Explain  the  meaning  of  the  following  terms  as 
applied  to  words:  OBSOLETE,  technical,  slang, 

COLLOQUIAL,  PROVINCIAL,  NEWLY  COINED. 

Try  to  think  of  examples  of  each  kind.  You 
zvill  find  in  the  Bible  many  words  no  longer  used 
in  common  speech.  Strictly  speaking,  however, 
they  are  not  obsolete,  but  ARCHAIC.  Archaic 
means  out  of  fashion  but  still  understood.  If  you 
have  a  friend  who  has  at  some  time  lived  in  a  dis- 
tant part  of  the  country,  you  will  notice,  probably, 
that  he  has  in  his  vocabulary  a  few  provincial 
expressions. 


CHAPTER  XIII 
PRONUNCIATION 

Clear  enunciation  does  not  make  a  gentleman, 
but  it  is  a  sign  of  good  breeding.  Educated  peo- 
ple, refined,  courteous  people,  those  who  respect 
language  and  are  thoughtful  of  the  comfort  of 
others,  try  to  speak  distinctly  and  correctly.  They 
consider  it  ill-mannered,  when  reading  aloud  or 
talking,  to  mumble  their  words,  misplace  accents, 
clip  syllables,  or  otherwise  abuse  language. 

Mispronunciation  is  due  principally  to  careless- 
ness. We  know  how  most  of  the  commoner 
words  should  be  pronounced,  but  we  are  slaves  to 
habit — the  habit  of  reading  and  talking  too  rap- 
idly. Ruskin,  a  great  English  essayist,  once  said, 
"  If  you  read  ten  pages  of  a  good  book,  letter  by 
letter,  that  is  to  say,  with  real  accuracy,  you  are 
for  evermore  in  some  measure  an  educated  per- 
son." This  kind  of  careful  reading,  the  eye  not- 
ing every  syllable,  every  letter,  must  form  the 
basis  of  all  serious  effort  to  learn  how  to  pro- 
nounce. But  the  ear  must  help  the  eye,  intently 
listening  when  those  whom  it  is  safe  to  imitate  are 
reading  aloud  or  talking.     And  the  vocal  organs 


PRONUNCIATION 


121 


must  be  trained  to  obey;  for  it  is  one  thing  to 
know  how  a  given  word  should  be  pronounced, 
and  quite  another  thing  to  be  able  to  pronounce  it. 
Training  the  eye,  the  ear,  and  the  tongue  to  take 
pains :  that  is  the  secret  of  the  whole  matter. 

The  following  exercises  are  exceedingly  simple. 
Their  purpose  is  to  call  attention  to  a  few  of  the 
many  words  commonly  mispronounced.  To  run 
through  them  once  or  twice  will  accomplish  little; 
they  call  for  repeated  practice,  day  after  day. 


EXERCISE  75 

Pronounce  the  following^  making  sure  that  the 
accent  falls  where  it  should.  If  in  doubt,  consult 
a  good  dictionary. 


address 

deficit 

alloy 

incomparable 

recess 

hyperbole 

alias 

disreputable 

discourse 

idea 

combatant 

formidable 

influence 

precedence 

reputable 

gondola 

express 

precedent 

infamous 

chastisement 

illustrate 

mustache 

condolence 

clandestine 

character 

romance 

caricature 

irremediable 

finance 

herculean 

comparable 

deference 

mischievous 

exquisite 

interesting 

entire 

EXERCISE  76 

In   careless   speech    perhaps    becomes   praps, 
USUALLY  contracts  into  USALLY.     All  the  words 


122        DICTIONARY  AND  GRAMMAR 

in  the  following  group  suffer  from  this  kind  of 
abuse.  Pronounce  carefully,  giving  each  syllable 
due  attention. 


general 

calculate 

miserable 

artistically 

several 

usually 

reverend 

boisterous 

personal 

naturally 

bravery 

illiterate 

temperance 

governor 

machinery 

miniature 

regular 

original 

battery 

vulnerable 

reasonable 

parenthesis 

restaurant 

sarsaparilla 

laboratory 

incidentally 

sentinel 

cardinal 

difference 

superintendent 

military 

perhaps 

singular 

delivery 

curiosity 

enthusiasm 

EXERCISE  77 

ATH  EL  ETICS,  SAWR,  DROWNDED,  and  NAOW 
are  common  mispronunciations  of  athletics, 
SAW,  DROWNED,  and  NOW.  Occasionally  a  silent 
letter  is  sounded,  as  in  OFTEN  and  HERB.  Be 
careful  not  to  make  mistakes  of  this  sort  when  pro- 
nouncing the  following  words. 

brethren  Wales 

draw  spasm 

business  saw 

down  salmon 

often  found 

athletics  herb 

umbrella  house 

sword  ought 


soda 

drowned 

straw 

drama 

intellect 

cow 

law 

spasm 

mountain 

extra 

how 

thought 

persevere 

soften 

caught 

column 

PRONUNCIATION 


123 


EXERCISE  78 

PUNKIN  and  CUNNIN  are  common  mispronun- 
ciations of  PUMPKIN  and  CUNNING.  Pay  espe- 
cial attention  to  consonants  when  pronouncing  the 
following  words. 


fact 

particular 

arctic 

subtract 

government 

adjacent 

anarchy 

reading 

perfect 

pumpkin 

instinct 

object 

speaking 

partridge 

recognize 

doing 

quarter 

expect 

tract 

accept 

orphan 

leaving 

anything 

Harvard 

connect 

except 

recognition 

cunning 

including 

extract 

attract 

February 

EXERCISE  79 

Pronounce,  taking  pains  to  give  full  value  to 
the  vowel  in  each  final  syllable.  Do  not  turn 
OBJECT  into  OBjiCT,  nor  judgment  into  JUDG- 

MUNT. 


providence 

admittance 

audience 

government 

statement 

argument 

prominent 

benevolence 

sentiment 

regular 

reverence 

extravagance 

professor 

parliament 

restaurant 

countrymen 

jurymen 

difference 

vehement 

accomplishment 

gentlemen 

reverend 

battlement 

independent 

object 

singular 

irrelevant 

intemperance 

similar 

accident 

judgment 

tenement 

amusement 

rudiments 

disconsolate 

expedient 

124        DICTIONARY  AND  GRAMMAR 

EXERCISE  80 

ITALIAN  should  not  be  pronounced  as  if  spelled 
EYETALIAN,  nor  AMERICAN  as  if  it  were  amur- 
ICAN.  Pay  particular  attention  to  all  the  vowels 
in  this  group  of  words. 


foreigner 

American 

engine 

genuine 

nominate 

capability 

yet 

separate 

get 

candidate 

Italian 

barbarism 

educate 

animal 

solemn 

clemency 

rather 

far 

definition 

representative 

complicatfDn 

visible 

Coliseum 

ceremony 

EXERCISE  81 

Give  the  vowel  o  its  full  sound.  Do  not  sub- 
stitute the  sound  of  some  other  letter.  Do  not  in- 
sert the  letter  R. 


mnocent 

tomatoes 

mountam 

sonorous 

eloquent 

mosquito 

decoration 

introduction 

society 

diagonal 

apologize 

potatoes 

swallow 

professor 

chocolate 

piano 

accommodate 

fellow 

borrow 

process 

provide 

oyster 

apoplexy 

cow 

composition 

proposition 

sorrow 

often 

hoist 

lost 

ought 

bellow 

pillow 

propose 

hollow 

colony 

PRONUNCIATION 


125 


EXERCISE  82 

Perhaps  no  vowel  is  more  commonly  mispro- 
nounced than  U.  Seldom  should  it  he  given  the 
sound  of  00  as  in  the  word  BOOT. 


blue 

stupid 

stimulate 

occupy 

student 

produce 

rudiments 

durable 

truth 

tutor 

picture 

argument 

tube 

tune 

educate 

altitude 

Tuesday- 

dutiful 

genuine 

culinary 

duke 

attitude 

institute 

figure 

gratitude 

avenue 

speculate 

cruel 

EXERCISE  83 

The  vowel  A  represents  a  number  of  different 
sounds.  Are  you  sure  that  you  pronounce  the  fol- 
lowing words  correctly? 


ask 

parent 

extra 

calm 

half 

haunt 

calf 

because 

gape 

laugh 

path 

father 

catch 

chaste 

psalm 

vaunt 

can't 

launch 

patent 

alternate 

EXERCISE  84 
TH,  NGTH,  SPH,  and  similar  combinations  are 


difficult  for  some  tongues. 

length  thousand 

depths  drouth 

Thursday  diphthong 

sphere  architecture 

through  strength 


Master  the  following, 

twelfth  eleventh 

chasm  thought 

drought  architect 

eighth  trough 

naphtha  throat 


126        DICTIONARY  AND  GRAMMAR 

EXERCISE  85 

Each  word  in  this  group  presents  some  difficulty. 
When  in  doubt,  do  not  guess;  consult  a  dictionary. 


amateur 

epitome 

decrepit 

coffee 

juvenile 

cayenne 

column 

clapboard 

victuals 

detour 

again 

creek 

debris 

suite 

sesame 

enmity 

bestial 

leisure 

sergeant 

immediate 

viscount 

odious 

pantomime 

representative 

fiance 

courtesy 

forehead 

apron 

docile 

irrelevant 

tedious 

spoon 

deaf 

hundred 

chimney 

inveigh 

EXERCISE  86 

The  following  are  selected  from  the  preceding' 
groups.  Pronounce  them  slowly  and  with  distinct 
enunciation.  Go  through  the  list  again  and  again; 
master  each  word. 


Tuesday 

influence 

sphere 

creek 

February 

discourse 

tract 

hundred 

Italian 

forehead 

catch 

umbrella 

American 

Wales 

object 

genuine 

pumpkin 

laugh 

professor 

subject 

quarter 

drowned 

avenue 

temperance 

psalm 

swallow 

saw 

mischievous 

governor 

height 

column 

address 

solemn 

length 

partridge 

express 

illustrate 

gentlemen 

architect 

athletics 

PRONUNCIATION 


127 


'strength 

ridiculous 

interesting 

recognize 

laboratory- 

sentiment 

decorous 

patent 

character 

willing 

debris 

illustrate 

stupid 

deaf 

chimney 

mustache 

Arctic 

intellect 

suite 

gratitude 

engine 

sword 

twelfth 

student 

detour 

superintendent 

miserable 

juvenile 

fellow 

fiance 

romance 

speaking 

several 

recess 

diiference 

gape 

often 

government 

potatoes 

pantomime 

rather 

coifee 

produce 

far 

EXERCISE  87 

Make  a  list  of  words  you  have  discovered, 
through  your  study  of  the  preceding  exercises,  that 
you  have  been  unconsciously  mispronouncing. 


EXERCISE  88 

Make  a  list  of  words  you  hear  commonly  mis- 
pronounced by  your  associates. 


EXERCISE  89 


Write,  as  if  to  a  child,  a  fifteen-line  paragraph 
explaining  the  dictionary' s  way  of  indicating  the 
correct  pronunciation  of  words.  This  is  a  difficult 
task;  do  it  well. 


CHAPTER  XIV 
WORD-BUILDING  AND  SPELLING 

Horse  and  shoe,  when  combined,  form  the  com- 
pound horseshoe.  Add  the  suffix  ness  to  the  adjec- 
tive good  and  we  have  the  noun  goodness.  Regain 
Is  but  the  word  gain  plus  a  prefix.  In  returnable, 
three  elements  are  combined,  a  simple  word,  a 
prefix,  and  a  suffix;  in  ungentlemanly  there  are  four 
elements.  Even  a  superficial  examination  of  the 
dictionary  reveals  the  fact  that  comparatively  few 
words  are  simple ;  that  there  are  scores  of  prefixes, 
scores  of  suffixes,  by  means  of  which  our  language 
multiplies. 

The  words  examined  in  the  paragraph  above 
are  readily  analyzed;  a  glance  shows  how  they  are 
put  together.  But  analysis  is  not  always  so  simple. 
Words  adopted  from  a  foreign  language  do  not, 
as  a  rule,  retain  their  original  form ;  only  the  vital 
part  of  each — the  root  or  the  stem,  as  it  is  called — 
is  retained.  Jacere,  for  example,  is  a  foreign  word 
meaning  to  throw.  Its  root  is  ject,  as  seen  in  in- 
terjection. Without  some  familiarity  with  foreign 
languages,  it  is  not  always  easy  to  detect  word- 
roots.      Many   prefixes   too   are    from   languages 

128 


WORD-BUILDING  AND  SPELLING      129 

other  than  our  own.  Some  are  so  commonly  em- 
ployed that  we  recognize  them  readily  enough  and 
know  what  they  mean;  yet  occasionally  one  is  so 
changed  in  the  process  of  joining  it  smoothly  to  a 
root  that  to  determine  where  the  prefix  ends  and 
the  root  begins  is  not  a  simple  matter. 

So  many  words  are  of  Latin  derivation — our 
ponderous  dictionary  would  shrink  at  least  one- 
third  if  they  were  all  dropped  from  it — that  some 
educators  believe  the  best  way  to  master  English 
is  to  master  Latin  first.  Whether  this  indirect 
method  is  best  or  not,  it  is  for  several  reasons  an 
exceedingly  good  one.  Those  who  are  unable  or 
unwilling  to  adopt  it  should  at  least  master  the 
more  commonly  employed  Latin  prefixes.  For 
frequently  a  prefix  furnishes  a  hint  of  what  the 
word  it  introduces  means,  and  sometimes  it  throws 
the  door  wide  open,  revealing  at  once  the  entire 
secret.  Familiarity  with  the  Latin  prefixes  also 
helps  one  to  spell  correctly.  A  large  proportion 
of  words  commonly  misspelled  are  of  Latin  origin. 
The  trouble  lies  in  the  joint,  where  the  prefix  is 
neatly  attached  to  the  root.  If  one  knows  the  pre- 
fixes thoroughly  and  understands  word-joinery, 
there  is  little  danger  of  tripping;  a  moment's 
thought  will  tell  what  the  spelling  must  be. 

Ab  or  abs  signifies  from.  Norma  is  the  Latin 
word  for  rule;  hence  the  English  word  normal^ 
meaning  according  to  rule  or  natural.  Abnormal, 
then,  means  away  from  the  rule  or  unnatural.  Ab- 
stract is  made  up  of  abs  and  the  root  of  a  Latin 


130        DICTIONARY  AND  GRAMMAR 

word  meaning  to  draw;  hence  to  abstract  Is  to 
draw  from. 

abduct  abhor  abdicate         abolition 

absolute  abrupt  absent  abstain 

Ante  signifies  before.  This  prefix  is  seen  in 
antedate  and  antecedent.  Sometimes  it  changes  to 
anti,  as  in  anticipate.  There  is  a  Greek  prefix 
anti  meaning  against.  It  is  seen  in  antislavery  and 
antidote.  An  antidote  is  something  given  to  coun- 
teract or  work  against  a  poison  or  a  disease. 

anterior  anteroom     anticipation     antique 

antediluvian     antiquity      antiquary         antechamber 

Circum  signifies  about  or  around.  It  is  found  in 
but  few  words  and  is  easily  recognized. 

circumference       circumnavigate         circumspect 
circumvent  circumlocution         circumscribe 

De  signifies  from  or  down.  Caput  is  Latin  for 
head;  decapitate,  then,  means  behead  or  take  the 
head  from  the  body.  Deposit  is  made  up  of  de 
meaning  down  and  a  Latin  word  signifying  to 
place  or  to  put. 

degrade  deform  debate  deliberate 

detest  deflect  debar  deject 

deduce  decrease         demerit  decamp 

Inter  signifies  between,  together,  or  among.  It 
is  easily  recognized  and  presents  no  difficulties. 

interval  international       interpose       interrupt 

interv^^eave     Interregnum        Interfere       Intersect 
interlude        Intercollegiate     Interview      intermediate 


WORD-BUILDING  AND  SPELLING      131 

Non  signifies  not.     It  presents  no  difficulties, 
nonsense  non-combatant  nonpareil 

nonconformity  nonentity  nondescript 

noncommittal  non-resident 

Per  signifies  through  or  by. 

perforate         perpetual         percent  perusal 

perpetrate       permeate         persevere  perennial 

persecute         perspire  permission  perspective 

Post  signifies  behind  or  after. 

posterior       postscript      postgraduate    posthumous 
postpone       posterity        postlude  post-mortem 

Pre  signifies  before.  Judicium  is  a  Latin  word 
meaning  judgment.  A  prejudice,  then,  is  a  judg- 
ment formed  before  careful  examination.  Pre  is 
a  very  useful  prefix,  appearing  in  a  great  many 
words. 


prelude 

preposition 

prefix 

prepaid 

preface 

preamble 

presage 

premature 

precede 

precaution 

precipitate 

preliminary 

predominate 

prehistoric 

premium 

predecessor 

precept 

premeditate 

precocious 

president 

Pro  signifies  forward,  before,  or  instead  of. 
Videre  is  the  infinitive  form  of  a  Latin  word  mean- 
ing to  see.  To  provide,  then.  Is  to  look  ahead  or 
make  ready  for  what  is  to  come.  A  great  many 
words  contain  this  useful  prefix. 

proceed  prologue  prostrate  promise 

procession  program  promote  professor 

protect  protrude  promenade  proclaim 

project  product  prosecute  pronoun 


132        DICTIONARY  AND  GRAMMAR 

Re  signifies  back  or  again,  and  appears  in  a  mul- 
titude of  words. 


rebate 

recollect 

retail 

reiterate 

recess 

reconcile 

reduce 

remember 

remunerate 

repeal 

resign 

reply 

retract 

revenge 

retreat 

reflect 

Se  signifies  apart.    It  appears  in  but  few  words. 

secede  seclude  secret  secrete 

select  separate  seduce  secretion 

Super  signifies  above.    It  presents  no  difficulties. 

superb  superlative  superstition 

superintend  superstructure  superficial 

superfluous  supernumerary 

Trans  or  tran  signifies  across,  beyond,  or 
through. 

transfer  trans-Atlantic     transient      transpose 

transplant      translate  transform    transact 

transparent    translucent         transom       transgression 

The  fourteen  prefixes  considered  thus  far  are 
simpler  than  the  six  to  be  examined  next,  in  that 
they  are  unchangeable.  Re  remains  re  and  se  re- 
mains se,  no  matter  to  what  root  they  may  be 
joined.     This  is  not  true  of  the  following. 

Ad  signifies  to.  It  is  recognized  at  once  in 
adhere  and  adjacent.  In  many  words,  however, 
ad  changes  to  ah,  ac,  af,  ag,  at,  an,  ap,  ar,  as,  or  at, 
before  b,  c,  f,  g,  I,  n,  p,  r,  s,  and  t.  That  is,  for  the 
sake  of  ease  in  pronunciation  the  final  letter  of  the 


WORD-BUILDING  AND  SPELLING      133 

prefix  changes  to  the  first  letter  of  the  stem. 
Words  containing  ad  In  a  disguised  form  are  mis- 
spelled frequently.  The  troublesome  ones,  it  will 
be  seen,  contain  the  double  consonant.  It  Is  al- 
most safe,  when  in  doubt,  to  double  the  consonant. 


annihilate 

adapt 

admission 

affluence 

abbreviate 

application 

affection 

attempt 

accent 

arrogant 

accompany 

appearance 

affix 

assert 

attribute 

apparatus 

alliteration 

attend 

arrive 

array 

Con  signifies  with  or  together.  Other  forms  of 
this  suffix  are  com,  col,  cor,  and  co.  Col  Is  found 
before  stems  beginning  with  /,  cor  before  stems 
beginning  with  r,  com  before  m,  con  before  n. 
Com  and  col  appear  before  other  letters  too,  but 
not  in  words  one  is  Inclined  to  misspell;  so  when 
In  doubt.  It  Is  safe  to  double  the  consonant.  Care- 
fully note  the  spelling  of  the  following.  Observe, 
too,  how  strong  the  idea  of  with  or  together  Is  in 
most  of  the  words. 


convene 

connect 

combine 

commerce 

conference 

concrete 

compete 

corrupt 

conspire 

concord 

compare 

correspond 

continent 

complex 

command 

collide 

co-education 

cohere 

conspire 

collection 

Dis  usually  signifies  apart,  though  sometimes  It 
has  the  force  of  a  negative.  Dif  and  di,  other 
forms  of  dis,  are  found  in  a  few  words.  There 
IS  a  temptation  to  substitute  diss  for  dis  In  disap- 


134        DICTIONARY  AND  GRAMMAR 

pear  and  all  other  words  in  which  the  root  begins 
with  a.  The  opposite  tendency  Is  seen  when  the 
root  begins  with  s,  as  In  dissatisfy.  Most  words 
introduced  by  dis  are  familiar;  a  moment's  thought 
is  all  that  Is  necessary  to  determine  the  root,  and 
this  once  determined,  the  correct  spelling  becomes 
obvious. 


disability 

dissect 

dissolve 

discomfort 

disadvantage 

dissemble 

dissuade 

digress 

disapprove 

dissent 

discharge 

dilute 

disappoint 

dissimilar 

disengage 

difficulty- 

disallow 

dissipate 

disjoin 

diffident 

Ex  signifies  out,  off,  or  beyond.  E  and  ef  are 
other  forms.  Words  Introduced  by  ex  present 
few  difficulties;  there  Is  no  temptation  to  double 
the  final  letter.  E  and  ef  are  sometimes  trouble- 
some because  the  Latin  stems  they  Introduce  are 
unfamiliar;  or  because  we  forget  that  ex  changes 
to  ef  before  a  stem  beginning  with  /.  Note  with 
care  the  words  In  the  first  two  columns. 


efface 

emigrant 

elapse 

explain 

effect 

emissary 

excavate 

explode 

effeminate 

enervate 

excellent 

export 

effervescent 

eloquent 

excursion 

express 

effort 

elocution 

exhaust 

extort 

In  signifies  in,  into,  or  not,  without.  It  Is  ex- 
ceedingly common,  and  exceedingly  troublesome 
to  poor  spellers,  who  forget,  or  do  not  know,  that 
in  changes  to  il,  im,  ir,  before  I,  m,  r. 


WORD-BUILDING  AND  SPELLING      135 

Study  the  following  words  faithfully,  first  not- 
ing the  form  of  the  prefix,  then  determining  the 
significance  of  the  prefix. 


Infuse 

Illegible 

Immaterial 

Irrational 

innovation 

Illiterate 

Immediate 

Irreducible 

Inoculate 

Illiberal 

Immense 

Irregular 

Inquisitive 

Illogical 

Immigrant 

Irreligious 

Inhale 

Illumine 

Immoral 

Irresolute 

Inherit 

Illustrate 

Immunity 

Irreverence 

Sub  signifies  under.  It  changes  to  sue,  suf,  sug, 
sum,  sup,  sur,  before  c,  f,  g,  m,  p,  and  r.  Let  the 
poor  speller  remember  this  double  consonant  ar- 
rangement; It  will  save  him  many  slips. 


subcontract 

success 

surreptitious 

suppress 

subscribe 

suffix 

summary 

suppose 

subdivide 

suggest 

support 

suburb 

subjugate 

suffer 

subconscious 

suffice 

In  the  following  table  the  prefixes  are,  for  con- 
venient reference,  arranged  alphabetically. 

Ab  (abs)  signifies  from. 

Ad  (ab,  ac,  af,  ag,  al, 

an,  ap,  ar,  as,  at)  "  to. 

Ante  "  before. 

Circum  "  about,   around. 
Con    (co,    col,    com, 

cor)  "  with  or  together. 

De  "  from  or  down. 

Dis  (di,  dif)  "  apart  or  not. 

Ex  "  out,  off,  or  beyond. 


136        DICTIONARY  AND  GRAMMAR 


In  (il, 

im, 

ir) 

signifies 

{  in,  into,  or  not,  with- 
out. 

Inter 

« 

between,  together,  or 
among. 

Non 

n 

not. 

Per 

it 

through  or  by. 

Post 

« 

behind  or  after. 

Pre 

ti 

before. 

Pro 

<i 

forward,  before,  or  in- 
stead of. 

Re 

« 

back  or  again. 

Se 

t( 

apart. 

Sub    (j 

3UC, 

suf, 

sug, 

sum, 

sup 

,   sur) 

({ 

under. 

Super 

« 

above. 

Trans 

(tran) 

« 

across,     beyond,     or 

through. 

Suffixes,  more  numerous  than  prefixes,  and  fully 
as  useful,  appear  in  so  many  of  our  commonest 
words  that  their  significance  Is  learned  almost  un- 
consciously. It  will  not  do  to  pass  them  by,  how- 
ever, without  noting  certain  rules  which  tell  how 
suffixes  are  joined  to  stems.  These  rules  should  be 
learned. 

Final  silent  e  is  kept  before  an  added  syllable  be- 
ginning with  a  consonant,  and  dropped  before  a 
suffix  beginning  with  a  vowel ;  but  words  ending  in 
ce  or  ge  retain  the  e  before  a  and  0.  Words  ending 
in  t'e  drop  the  e  and  change  the  /  to  /  before  ing. 

Love-\-ly  makes  lovely,  love-\-ahle  makes  lov- 
able.    Change+ahle  makes  changeable  and  serv- 


WORD-BUILDING  AND  SPELLING      137 

ice+ahle  makes  serviceable;  otherwise  there  would 
be  a  temptation  to  give  g  and  c  the  hard  sound  as 
in  rang  and  cup.  Tie+ing  makes  tying.  The  e 
is  dropped  since  it  is  final  silent  e,  and  i  changes  to 
y  to  prevent  the  doubling  of  i.  Singeing  and  dye- 
ing retain  the  e  to  distinguish  them  from  singing 
and  dying.  Truly,  duly,  shoeing,  hoeing,  toeing, 
awful,  argument,  and  judgment  are  other  excep- 
tions to  the  rule. 


hoping 

advertisement 

subduing 

amazement 

excitement 

tying 

engagement 

traceable 

salable 

infringement 

coming 

blamable 

peaceable 

tasty- 

advantageous 

conceivable 

movable 

spongy 

dining 

dying 

Words  ending  in  a  single  consonant  preceded  by  a 
single  vowel  double  the  consonant  before  an  added 
syllable  beginning  with  a  vowel,  if  the  word  formed 
is  to  be  accented  on  the  syllable  preceding  the  suf^ 
fix;  otherwise  the  consonant  is  not  doubled. 

This  rule,  like  the  preceding  one,  is  to  prevent 
mispronunciation.  Hop-\ring  makes  hopping.  If 
the  consonant  were  not  doubled,  we  should  have 
no  way  of  distinguishing  it  from  hoping,  a  very 
different  word. 


goddess 

deference 

occurrence 

usually 

literally 

baggage 

redden 

permitting 

deferred 

slipped 

planned 

nutting 

preference 

beginning 

beginner 

gripping 

preferring 

stopped 

swimming 

compelling 

138         DICTIONARY  AND  GRAMMAR 

When  preceded  by  a  consonant,  final  /  is  generally 
changed  to  /before  an  added  syllable  not  beginning 
with  /;  otherwise  it  remains  unchanged. 

Holy-\-day  makes  holiday,  and  plenty-\-ful 
makes  plentiful;  but  joy-\-ful  makes  joyful,  and 
toy+ing  makes  toying.  There  are  a  few'exceptlons 
to  the  rule,  among  them  being  shy,  sly,  and  dry, 
which  retain  the  y  before  ness  and  ly;  but  these 
we  are  not  apt  to  misspell. 

pitiful  volleying        compliance        modifying 

denying  modifier         joyous  defiance 

EXERCISE  90 

Without  referring  to  the  table,  explain  the  sig- 
nificance of  each  of  the  following  prefixes. 

ab  ante  con  dis  in 

ad  circum  de  ex  inter 

EXERCISE  91 

Explain  the  significance  of  each  of  the  follow^ 
ing  prefixes. 


non 

post 

pro               se 

super 

per 

pre 

re                sub 
EXERCISE  92 

trans 

Without  referring  to  any  hook,  write  down  all 
the  words  you  can  think  of  which  contain  the  prt- 


WORD-BUILDING  AND  SPELLING     139 

iix  AB  in  any  of  its  forms.  Do  the  same  with  each 
of  the  twenty  prefixes.  (This  may  be  made  a 
class  contest.) 


EXERCISE  93 

What  prefixes  appear  in  the  following  words? 
Give  the  original  form  of  each. 


apparel 

commence 

communicate 


illegible 
suppress 
suffix 


attribute 

alliteration 

illiterate 


aggregate 
supply- 
irreligious 


EXERCISE  94 

In  which  of  the  following  words  has  the  prefix 
the  force  of  in  or  into,  and  in  which  has  it  the 
force  of  NOT  or  without? 

illogical  irregular  inspiration  independent 
illuminate  immigrant  inoculate  infamy- 
imbibe  involuntary  insane  indebted 
impediment  insomnia  inquisitive  incendiary 


EXERCISE  95 

Open  the  dictionary  at  random  and  note  how 
many  words  containing  Latin  prefixes  there  are  on 
a  single  page.  Do  the  same  with  a  column  from 
the  editorial  page  of  any  newspaper.  Do  the 
same  with  a  page  from  a  magazine. 


140        DICTIONARY  AND  GRAMMAR 

EXERCISE  96 

CEIVE  and  CEPT  are  roots  from  a  Latin  word 
meaning  TO  take.  Form  as  many  words  as  you 
can  by  adding  prefixes  and  suffixes. 

CEDE,  CEED,  and  CESS  are  roots  meaning  TO 
GO  or  TO  YIELD.  Form  from  these  roots  as  many 
words  as  you  can. 

In  the  same  manner  form  words  from  the  roots 
DUC  and  duct,  which  are  from  a  Latin  word 
meaning  to  lead. 


EXERCISE  97 

FECT  is  from  a  Latin  word  meaning  TO  DO  or 
TO  MAKE.    Form  words  from  it. 

JECT  is  from  a  Latin  word  meaning  TO  THROW. 
Form  words  from  it. 

JUNCT  is  from  a  Latin  word  meaning  TO  join. 
Form  words  from  it. 


EXERCISE  98 

MIT  and  MISS  are  roots  meaning  TO  SEND. 
Form  words  from.  them. 

PON  and  POSIT  are  roots  meaning  TO  place. 
Form  words  from.  them. 

TRACT  means  TO  DRAW.    Form  words  from  it. 


WORD-BUILDING  AND  SPELLING      141 

EXERCISE  99 

State  the  rule  for  adding  syllables  to  words  end- 
ing in  silent  E. 

State  the  rule  for  adding  syllables  to  words  end- 
ing in  a  single  consonant  preceded  by  a  single 
vowel. 

State  the  rule  for  adding  syllables  to  words  end- 
ing in  Y. 

EXERCISE  100 

Give  the  rule  governing  each  of  the  words  in 
the  list  below. 

dying  goddess  hoeing  deference 
pitiful  serviceable  advantageous  purity- 
preference  shammed  lying  hungriest 
truly  subduing  judgment  shying 


EXERCISE  101 

Study  with  great  care  the  spelling  of  the  follow- 
ing zvords,  paying  particular  attention  to  prefixes. 
With  what  letter  does  the  stem  of  each  word 
begin? 


dissect 

opponent 

appoint 

immediately 

effervescent 

disappear 

aggregate 

affirm 

emergency 

misspell 

correspondent 

addict 

accuracy 

immense 

access 

accidentally 

emigrant 

disagree 

describe 

ascertain 

disobedience 

adjacent 

apparatus 

dissimilar 

irregular 

suppress 

effeminate 

interrupt 

142        DICTIONARY  AND  GRAMMAR 


EXERCISE  102 

The  following  are  troublesome  because  of  their 
suffixes,  in  each  case  there  being  a  temptation  to 
use  a  wrong  ending.    Master  them. 


affirmative 

visible 

forcible 

dictionary 

spherical 

bachelor 

connotative 

audible 

coincidence 

conservative 

contemptible 

identical 

experience 

popular 

comparatively 

obedience 

burglar 

infinite 

spontaneous 

purity 

imperative 

penitentiary 

independence 

resistance 

participate 

secretary 

correspondent 

conspirato] 

EXERCISE  103 

Words  containing  the  diphthongs  ei  and  ie  are 
troublesome  until  one  learns  that  when  the  diph- 
thong has  the  sound  of  long  e,  i  comes  first  except 
when  the  diphthong  is  preceded  by  c.  Weird, 
seize,  neither,  and  leisure  are  important  exceptions. 
With  this  rule  in  mind,  study  the  following  words. 


yield 

niece 

receive 

conceive 

shrieve 

perceive 

fiend 

pierce 

receipt 

deceit 

shriek 

wield 

relieve 

besiege 

achieve 

apiece 

EXERCISE  104 

The   following   are   commonly    misspelled   be- 
cause commonly   mispronounced.     Are  you   sure 


WORD-BUILDING  AND  SPELLING      143 


that  you  are  accustomed  to  pronounce  them  cor- 
rectly? 


embroidery 

recognize          artistically 

ransacking 

tournament 

sophomore        cemetery 

athletics 

quarter 

temperament    farthest 

cartridge 

intellect 

laboratory        literally 

lightning 

strategy 

accidentally      tragedy 
EXERCISE  105 

tremendous 

The  following,  frequently  misspelled,  are  very 
simple  when  analyzed.  Often  a  long  word  is  but  a 
short,  familiar  word  to  which  prefix  and  suffix 
have  been  added.  A  moment's  thought  should 
clear  away  all  difficulty. 


recollect 
agreeableness 
narrative 
sensibility 


preparation 
recommend 
criticism 
miraculous 


imagmation 
undoubtedly 
ridgepole 
graphically 


incidentally 
handsome 
condescend 
analysis 


EXERCISE  106 

Here  are  groups  of  words  arranged  in  pairs. 
Put  each  pair  into  a  sentence  or  two  so  constructed 
as  to  show  without  doubt  that  you  know  what  each 
word  means. 


admission 

affect 

allusion 

altar 

admittance 

effect 

illusion 

alter 

ascent 

bare 

berth 

brake 

assent 

bear 

birth 

break 

144        DICTIONARY  AND  GRAMMAR 


breath 

bridal 

calendar 

canon 

breathe 

bridle 

calender 

cannon 

canvas 

capital 

ceiling 

cereal 

canvass 

capitol 

sealing 

serial 

cession 

chandelier 

cite 

clothes 

session 

chanticleer 

site 

cloths 

EXERCISE  107 
Do  the  same  with  the  following  words. 


coarser 

colonel 

complement 

conservator] 

courser 

kernel 

compliment 

observatory 

council 

creak 

currant 

deceased 

counsel 

creek 

current 

diseased 

desert 

dual 

dyeing 

eligible 

dessert 

duel 

dying 

legible 

emerge 

emigrant 

fain 

faint 

immerge 

immigrant 

feign 

feint 

feat 

formally 

fort 

forth 

fete 

formerly 

forte 

fourth 

EXERCISE  108 

Do  the  same  with  the  following  words,  ' 


gait 
gate 

gilt 
guilt 

grease 
Greece 

hail 
hale 

heal 
heel 

hew 
hue 

humerus 
humorous 

lead 
led 

leaf 
lief 

lightening 
lightning 

lose 
loose 

mantel 
mantle 

WORD-BUILDING  AND  SPELLING      145 


meat 

medal 

miner 

partition 

mete 

meddle 

minor 

petition 

peace 

peal 

pedal 

persecute 

piece 

peel 

peddle 

prosecute 

pillar 

prescribe 

principal 

prodigy 

pillow 

proscribe 

principle 

progeny 

prophecy 

real 

respectfully 

ring 

prophesy 

reel 

respectively 

wring 

role 

sewer 

shear 

sleight 

roll 

sower 

sheer 

slight 

soar 

stake 

stationary 

statue 

sore 

steak 

stationery 

statute 

stile 

tail 

team 

waist 

style 

tale 

teem 

waste 

EXERCISE  109 

Here  are  pnal  lists  of  words,  some  of  which  we 
have  already  examined,  calling  for  careful  study. 
Analyze  them  syllable  by  syllable.  Master  them 
once  for  all. 


pronunciation 

belligerent 

prejudice 

apparent 

divine 

among 

imitate 

arriving 

salary 

around 

muscle 

dissolve 

control 

brilliant 

arrange 

together 

speech 

proceed 

altogether 

equip 

mysterious 

beseech 

business 

whether 

146        DICTIONARY  AND  GRAMMAR 


vegetable 

surprise 

gas 

rummage 

galloped 

separate 

variegated 

melancholy- 

professor 

similar 

privilege 

announce 

artillery- 

divide 

appetite 

EXERCISE  110 


rhythm 

catarrh 

color 

sleeve 

malady 

difficult 

across 

caterpillar 

excel 

sovereign 

embarrass 

restaurant 

essential 

acquisition 

pamphlet 

precede 

villain 

accord 

expel 

terrestrial 

allow 

hospital 

undoubtedly 

agreeable 

grammar 

writer 

acquaintance 

luscious 

twelfth 

burglary 

callous 

syllable 

until 

exaggerate 

abolish 

parliament 

drowned 

nymph 

college 

soliloquy- 

accommodate 

consonant 

EXERCISE  111 


persevere 

marriage 

bereave 

academy 

committee 

possess 

career 

sympathy 

finally 

reverend 

repetition 

annual 

agree 

warrior 

messenger 

paradise 

annex 

resurrect 

odor 

opportunity 

achieve 

duchess 

drudgery 

graphically 

WORD-BUILDING  AND  SPELLING      147 


noticeable 

amateur 

barbarous 

pursue 

assassin 

shepherd 

commencement 

millionaire 

accustomed 

negotiate 

remedy 
EXERCISE  112 

sergeant 

accordingly 

collapse 

fascinate 

milliner 

feminine 

discourtesy 

gasoline 

cylinder 

disapprove 

image 

physical 

hypocrisy 

Italy 

discipline 

trespass 

incandescent 

genius 

appeal 

fiery 

implement 

haggard 

describe 

crystal 

enemy 

necessity 

kerosene 

complexion 

crescent 

different 

dissipate 

approach 

coincide 

unanimous 

phase 

etiquette 
EXERCISE  113 

all  right 

comical 

chestnutting 

alert 

enthusiasm 

excellent 

comparative 

existence 

exhausting 

exorbitant 

identically 

extraordinary 

irascible 

muscle 

irresistible 

impel 

machinery 

merely 

medicinal 

manageable 

becoming 

measure 

referring 

millinery 

miracle 

divisible 

definitely 

desirable 

arose 

despise 

afraid 

humorous 

hypocrite 

almost 

paralyze 

forty-four 

fierce 

pleasurable 

perseverance 

popped 

148        DICTIONARY  AND  GRAMMAR 


EXERCISE  114 


fulfil 

fallacy 

fictitious 

acquire 

apostrophe 

association 

driest 

righteous 

ridiculous 

relieve 

abstruse 

remittance 

religious 

decorous 

destroy 

appeal 

remembrance 

diphthong 

dubious 

boundary 

benefit 

organization 

orator 

obedience 

occupant 

optician 

lief 

lucrative 

genealogy 

ninetieth 

necessary 

ninth 

hurried 

hygiene 

holiness 

neither 

EXERCISE  115 


queer 

wield 

vying 

visitor 

village 

vicious 

vertical 

thief 

tyrannize 

till 

tyrannize 

siege 

summary 

sponging 

sensible 

success 

surpass 

sentinel 

separate 

sure 

scheme 

sufficient 

supersede 

schedule 

spherical 

souvenir 

simile 

privilege 

pecuniary 

possession 

dutiful 

plausible 

parallel 

prescription 

probable 

partner 

WORD-BUILDING  AND  SPELLING      149 

For  convenient  reference  the  rules  for  spelling 
are  here  brought  together. 

1.  When  the  diphthong  ei  or  ie  has  the  sound  of 
long  e,  /  comes  first  except  when  the  diphthong  is 
preceded  by  c.  Weird,  seize,  neither,  and  leisure  are 
exceptions. 

2.  Final  silent  e  is  usually  kept  before  an  added 
syllable  beginning  with  a  consonant,  and  dropped 
before  a  suffix  beginning  with  a  vowel;  but  words 
ending  in  ce  or  ge  retain  the  e  before  a  and  0. 
Words  ending  in  ie  drop  the  e  and  change  the  /  to 
/  before  ing.  Truly,  duly,  awful,  argument,  and  judg- 
ment are  exceptions. 

3.  Words  ending  in  a  single  consonant  preceded 
by  a  single  vowel  double  the  final  consonant  before 
an  added  syllable  beginning  with  a  vowel,  if  the 
word  formed  is  to  be  accented  on  the  syllable  pre- 
ceding the  suffix;  otherwise  the  consonant  is  not 
doubled. 

4.  When  preceded  by  a  consonant,  final  /  is  gen- 
erally changed  to  /  before  an  added  syllable  not  be- 
ginning with  i;  otherwise  it  remains  unchanged. 
Shy,  sly,  and  dry  are  exceptions,  y  being  retained  before 
ness  and  ly. 


CHAPTER  XV 

SENTENCE  ANALYSIS:  A  REVIEW 
OF  GRAMMAR 

Words  are  but  feeble  things  except  when  prop- 
erly arranged  In  groups  and  set  to  work.  They 
resemble  In  this  respect  the  parts  of  a  machine,  a 
typewriter  for  Instance,  which  must  be  assembled 
with  care,  each  part  properly  fitted  in  its  place, 
before  the  machine  becomes  serviceable.  The  dic- 
tionary, which  we  may  call  first  of  the  great  law- 
books of  language,  considers  words  singly,  telling 
what  each  one  means,  how  It  should  be  spelled, 
how  pronounced.  Grammar,  correctly  speaking, 
includes  all,  or  nearly  all,  that  the  average  dic- 
tionary contains.  As  the  term  is  commonly  em- 
ployed, however,  the  special  province  of  grammar 
is  to  record  what  is  good  usage  among  language- 
respecting  people  as  regards  words  when  grouped 
for  service — what  forms  they  take  and  how  they 
are  arranged.  It  may  well  be  called  the  second 
great  law-book.  The  following  review  is  much 
too  brief  to  be  complete.  It  touches  but  lightly 
upon  many  things  and  passes  by  others  altogether, 
the  purpose  being  merely  to  freshen  the  memory 

150 


SENTENCE  ANALYSIS  151 

In  regard  to  such  matters  as  are  of  real  Importance 
to  one  who  is  trying  to  learn  to  speak  and  write 
correctly. 

The  simplest  word-group,  It  will  be  recalled,  Is 
the  sentence,  with  Its  two  vital  parts,  subject  and 
predicate.  The  former  names  that  concerning 
which  the  sentence  tells  something;  the  latter  is 
the  part  which  does  the  telling.  There  are  four 
kinds  of  sentences :  the  declarative,  used  In  making 
an  assertion;  the  Interrogative,  using  In  asking  a 
question;  the  Imperative,  used  in  entreating,  com- 
manding, and  in  giving  directions;  the  exclama- 
tory, used  In  expressing  deep  feeling. 

Declarative:  The  tide  has  turned. 
Interrogative:  Has  the  tide  turned? 
Imperative:  Seek  the  truth. 
Exclamatory:  How  gallantly  they  ride! 

Another  set  of  names  is  used  to  Indicate  the 
structure  of  sentences.  If  made  up  of  one  subject 
and  one  predicate,  a  sentence  Is  called  simple.  If 
made  up  of  two  or  more  Independent  clauses,  it 
Is  called  compound.  A  sentence  made  up  of  one 
independent  clause  and  one  or  more  dependent  * 
clauses  is  called  complex.  Compound-complex  is 
a  name  applied  to  a  sentence  made  up  of  Independ- 
ent clauses  one  or  more  of  which  are  complex.  By 
clause,  as  used  in  the  above  definitions.  Is  meant 
a  group  of  words  containing  a  subject  and  a  pred- 
icate and  forming  part  of  a  sentence.     It  differs 


o.  >- 


52        DICTIONARY  AND  GRAMMAR 


from  a  phrase,  which  is  a  group  of  related  words 
that  does  not  contain  subject  and  predicate.  It 
resembles  a  phrase  in  that  it  is  often  used  as  if  it 
were  a  single  word. 

Phrase:  in  the  morning 

Clause :  where  I  had  determined  to  spend  the  night 

Simple  sentence:  We  reached  the  village. 

Compound  sentence:  The  stars  fade  and  dawn  appears. 

Complex  sentence:  In  the  evening  we  reached  the  vil- 
lage  where  I  had  determined  to  spend  the  night. 

Compound-complex  sentence:  We  discovered  that  we 
had  forgotten  the  packet  and  Pierre  was  sent  for  it. 

Thus  we  have  the  following  display. 

Declarative      making  an  assertion 
Interrogative  asking  a  question 
Purpose    -{  Imperative       commanding,    direct- 
ing, or  entreating 
Exclamatory   expressing  deep  feeling 

Sentences  -{ 

Simple  having  but  one  subject 

and  one  predicate 
Structure  i  Co^^po^iid        made  up  of  two  or  more 

independent  clauses 
Complex  containing  one  or  more 

*-  dependent  clauses 

There  are  eight  kinds  of  words:  nouns,  pro- 
nouns, verbs,  adjectives,  adverbs,  prepositions, 
conjunctions,  and  interjections.  It  should  be  re- 
membered, however,  that  just  as  upon  occasion  a 
lawyer  may  become  a  lecturer,  or  a  schoolboy  a 
fisherman,  so  a  given  word  may  be  now  one  "  part 
of  speerh,"  now  another.     What  a  word  is  doing 


SENTENCE  ANALYSIS  153 

determines  what  it  should  be  called.  If  used  to 
name  something,  it  is  a  noun.  If  used  as  a  substi- 
tute for  a  noun,  it  is  a  pronoun.  Nouns  and  pro- 
nouns, indeed  all  words  or  word-groups  used  like 
nouns,  are  called  substantives.  A  verb  is  a  word 
or  phrase  used  to  assert  something  concerning  that 
which  a  substantive  names  or  designates.  Adjec- 
tives are  words  used  to  modify  the  meaning  of 
substantives,  and  adverbs  are  words  used  to  mod- 
ify the  meaning  of  verbs,  adjectives,  or  other  ad- 
verbs. Adjectives  and  adverbs,  and  all  words  or 
word-groups  used  like  adjectives  or  adverbs,  are 
called  modifiers.  Prepositions  connect  substantives 
with  other  words,  and  show  how  they  are  related; 
conjunctions  join  words,  phrases,  or  clauses.  Prep- 
ositions and  conjunctions,  and  other  parts  of 
speech  when  used  like  them,  are  called  connectives. 
An  interjection  is  a  word — a  cry  or  an  exclama- 
tion— used  to  express  deep  feeling.  These  defini- 
tions are  not  In  every  Instance  complete;  but  they 
serve  sufficiently  well  to  point  out  In  a  general  way 
the  service  performed  by  each  part  of  speech. 

Noun:  The  day  Is  done. 

Pronoun:  They  run. 

Verb:  The  birds  have  flown. 

Adjective:  A  soft  answer  turneth  away  wrath. 

Adverb :  The  sentinel  walked  softly. 

Preposition :  Two  of  the  ships  were  lost. 

Conjunction :  Come  and  trip  it  as  ye  go. 

Interjection:  Alas! 


154        DICTIONARY  AND  GRAMMAR 
Thus  we  have  the  following  display. 


Parts  of 
Speech 


Nouns  -words  used  as  names 

Pronouns  words  used  as  substitutes  for  nouns 

Verbs  words  used  in  making  assertions 

Adjectives        words  used  to  modify  substantives 
Adverbs  words  used  to  modify  verbs,  adjec- 

tives, adverbs 
Prepositions    words  used  to  connect  substantives 
with  other  words  and  show  how 
they  are  related 
Conjunctions    words    used     to    connect    words, 

phrases,  clauses 
Interjections    cries    and    exclamations  used  to 
express  deep  feeling 


Studying  this  table  for  a  moment,  one  cannot 
fail  to  see  that  the  various  parts  of  speech  enjoy 
but  little  independence;  they  must  work  together 
just  as  the  individuals  of  a  community  must;  all 
are  needed,  none  is  self-sufficient.  Nouns  are  help- 
less without  verbs,  and  verbs  helpless  without 
nouns.  Pronouns,  great  time-savers  that  enable 
us  to  take  short  cuts,  and  to  push  ahead  without 
too  often  retracing  steps,  are  meaningless  when  by 
themselves.  Adjectives  and  adverbs  must  have 
something  to  cling  to,  other  words  to  work  for; 
and  connectives,  when  by  themselves,  are  like 
mortar  without  bricks,  bridges  without  banks  to 
join,  or  sign-boards  where  there  are  no  cross-ways. 
Interjections,  of  all  the  parts  of  speech,  enjoy  a 
degree  of  lonely  independence;  yet  a  page  of  in- 
terjections and  nothing  else  would  be  unintelligible. 
The  Oh!  Alas!  or  Mercy!  means  nothing  until 


SENTENCE  ANALYSIS  155 

some  complete  sentence  explains  what  has  pro- 
duced the  emotion  represented  by  the  exclamation. 

In  the  second  place  it  may  be  noted  that  though 
no  word  Is  wholly  Independent,  the  eight  parts  of 
speech  are  of  different  value  or  rank,  this  suggest- 
ing again  a  parallel  between  words  and  individ- 
uals. The  noun  Is  easily  the  most  Important,  In 
numbers  as  well  as  in  service.  If  we  could  have 
but  this  one  part  of  speech  w^e  should  manage 
somehow,  though  lamely,  without  the  other  seven. 
Next  comes  the  verb,  without  which  there  could  be 
no  complete  sentence.  A  workaday  world  might 
get  along  fairly  well  with  these  two  parts  of  speech 
alone.  Adjectives  and  adverbs  are  plainly  In- 
ferior to  nouns  and  verbs,  and  the  connectives  are 
of  a  still  lower  order;  yet  vigor,  precision,  and 
beauty  of  expression  depend  so  largely  on  a  com- 
mand of  these  minor  groups  of  words  that  they 
are  entitled  to  our  full  respect  and  merit  close 
study.  The  relative  Importance  of  each  part  of 
speech  may  be  tested  in  an  interesting  way  by  tak- 
ing a  paragraph  from  any  book  and  removing 
from  It  in  turn  the  nouns,  the  pronouns,  and  so  on. 

Finally  comes  the  thought  that  though  there  is 
no  such  thing  as  Independence  among  words,  and 
though  some  parts  of  speech  may  be  considered 
of  higher  rank  than  others,  nevertheless  each  term 
In  the  language  enjoys  a  kind  of  supremacy,  each 
is  a  specialist  doing  some  one  thing  better  than  It 
can  be  done  by  any  other. 

Interjections  and  prepositions  do  not  change  in 


156        DICTIONARY  AND  GRAMMAR 

form,  nor  can  they  be  subdivided  into  classes  or 
varieties  according  to  the  service  they  perform. 
Other  parts  of  speech  may  be  subdivided,  and 
with  the  exception  of  the  conjunction  they  may  be 
"inflected"  more  or  less;  that  is,  they  may  be 
bent  into  this  or  that  shape  to  express  shades  of 
meaning  and  to  show  the  relationship  of  word  to 
word,  much  as  some  machines  may  be  "  adjusted  " 
to  perform  different  kinds  of  work.  For  exam- 
ple, boys  is  an  inflected  form  of  boy,  and  worked 
an  inflected  form  of  work.  Centuries  ago,  our 
language  was  much  more  highly  inflected  than  it  is 
to-day.  Many  forms  have  dropped  out  of  use, 
and  others  are  gradually  disappearing.  Yet  the 
shades  of  meaning  and  the  relationships  they  once 
expressed  still  remain,  and  often  the  names  of 
these  are  retained  even  though  the  inflected  forms 
are  gone.  We  will  now  take  up  each  part  of 
speech  separately,  considering  its  subdivisions,  its 
inflections,  and  the  service  it  performs. 


Nouns 


'  Kinds  common,  proper 

i  number  :  singular,  plural 
Forms  \  gender  :  masculine,  feminine,  neuter 

(  case  :  nominative,  possessive,  objective 

(i)  subject  of  verb,  (2)  object  of  verb,  (3) 
indirect  object  of  verb,  (4)  object  of 
preposition,  (5)  denoting  possession, 
How  used  ^  (6)  appositive  to  a  substantive,  (7) 
predicate  nominative,  (8)  nominative 
absolute,  (9)  nominative  by  address, 
(10)  adverbial  objective 

A  common  noun  is  a  name  which  may  be  ap- 


SENTENCE  ANALYSIS  157 

plied  to  any  one  of  an  entire  class  of  things;  a 
proper  noun  designates  a  particular  one,  distin- 
guishing it  from  others  of  the  same  class.  Illit- 
erate people  sometimes  fail  to  begin  the  proper 
noun  with  a  capital,  and  frequently  begin  with  a 
capital  a  word,  especially  the  name  of  a  plant  or 
an  animal,  with  which  they  are  not  familiar.  Dog 
is  a  common  noun;  so  too  is  ichthyosaurus,  not- 
withstanding the  fact  that  it  has  many  syllables 
and  sounds  strange  to  the  ear.  '- ^       ^  »  '  .'^\ 

1  heregular  way  of  forming  the  plural  is  by 
adding  s  or  es  to  the  singular,  observation  rather 
than  hard  and  fast  rules  teaching  which  ending  is 
correct  in  a  given  case.  It  is  well  to  remember, 
however,  that  nouns  ending  in  y  preceded  by  a 
consonant  change  the  y  to  i  and  add  es;  that  a  few, 
though  not  all,  words  ending  in  fe  change  the 
f  to  V  and  add  s;  and  that  a  few,  though  not  all, 
ending  in  o  preceded  by  a  consonant  add  es.  For- 
eign words  are  troublesome  in  that  many  of  them 
have  plural  endings  not  found  in  our  language. 
The  oddest  rule  is  that  which  bids  us  indicate  the 
plural  of  figures,  letters,  and  signs  by  adding  *s. 
(See  Exercise  121  on  page  187.) 


pony 

ponies 

valley 

valleys 

knife 

knives 

potato 

potatoes 

vertebra 

vertebrae 

6 

6's 

t 

.      t's 

+ 

+'s 

Few  nouns  have  separate  forms  to  indicate  dif- 
ference in  gender;  but  that  which  a  word  names 
may  have  gender,  so  we  may  speak  of  noum  a§  mas- 


158        DICTIONARY  AND  GRAMMAR 

culine,  feminine,  and  neuter.  It  is  somewhat  the 
same  with  case  as  it  is  with  gender.  One  form 
now  suffices  for  both  nominative  and  objective; 
the  only  inflection  is  that  which  denotes  what  is 
loosely  called  possession.  The  regular  way  of 
forming  the  possessive  is  by  adding  's  to  the  sin- 
gular and  to  all  plurals  not  ending  in  s.  Plurals 
ending  in  s  add  the  apostrophe  only.  When  a 
noun  of  more  than  one  syllable  ends  in  an  5  or  z 
sound,  some  writers  prefer  to  indicate  the  singular 
possessive  by  adding  simply  the  apostrophe; 
others,  and  they  are  to  be  commended,  follow 
the  regular  rule.  Ulysses's  voyage,  Xerxes' s  ex- 
ercises, and  similar  phrases  have  an  unpleasant 
sound.  Perhaps  the  sanest  way  is  to  avoid  such 
ugly  combinations  by  writing  the  voyage  of 
Ulysses  and  the  exercises  of  Xerxes.  If  two  or 
more  nouns  joined  by  and  show  joint  possession, 
as  in  the  sentence  This  is  John  and  Henry's  boat, 
the  sign  of  possession  is  needed  with  the  last  noun 
only;  but  we  write  correctly  This  is  either  John's 
or  Henry's,  and  This  is  neither  John's  nor 
Henry's,     (See  Exercise  122  on  page  188.) 

man's  men's  Dickens's  masterpiece 

lady's  ladies'  The  deeds  of  Themistocles 

Brown  and  Green's  harness  shop  (joint  possession) 
Goldsmith's  and  Burns's  poems  (separate  possession) 
Is  this  Monday's  or  Tuesday's  Tribune? 
It  Is  neither  Monday's  nor  Tuesday's. 

The  ways  in  which  nouns  are  used  will  be  better 
understood  later  on  when  the  other  parts  of  speech 


SENTENCE  ANALYSIS 


159 


have  been  examined.  Since  this  Is  a  review  of 
grammar,  the  following  examples  should  not  prove 
wholly  unintelligible.  The  numbers  correspond  to 
those  found  In  the  table  on  page  156. 

I.  Fire  burns.  2.  Obey  the  law.  3.  They  offered 
Ccesar  a  crown.  4.  He  lives  in  Savannah.  5.  Great 
Expectations  is  the  title  of  one  of  Dickens's  best  novels. 
6.  We  followed  the  Ohio  River,  a  branch  of  the  Missis- 
sippi. 7.  This  is  my  native  land.  8.  The  day  being 
clear,  we  had  an  extended  view.  9.  In  thee,  O  Lord,  do 
I  put  my  trust.  10.  Good-bye,  proud  world,  I'm  going 
home. 


Pronouns 


Kinds  ^ 


Forms 


Personal:  I,  you,  thou,  he,  she,  it; 
myself,  yourself,  etc. 

Relative  or  Conjunctive  :  who,  which, 
what,  that ;  whoever,  whatsoever,  etc. 

Demonstrative  :  this,  that 

Interrogative :  who,  which,  what, 
whether 

Indefinite  or  Adjective  :  each,  either, 
neither,  some,  any,  many,  few,  all, 
both,  aught,  naught,  one,  some  one, 
any  one,  every  one,  no  one,  such 
other,  each  other,  one  another 

Person  :  first,  second,  third 

Number  :  singular,  plural 

Gender  :  masculine,  feminine,  neuter 

Case  :  nominative,  possessive,  objective 


How  used:  (i)  To  take  the  place  of  the  noun, 
serving  in  all  save  the  last  of 
the  ten  ways  mentioned  in 
connection  with  nouns ;  (2)  to 
take  the  place  of  a  noun  and  at 
the  same  time  serve  as  a  con- 
nective (relative  pronouns  only) 


i6o 


DICTIONARY  AND  GRAMMAR 


Personal  pronouns,  so  called  because  some  al- 
ways represent  the  "  first "  person  or  the  one 
speaking,  others  the  "  second  "  person  or  the  one 
spoken  to,  and  others  the  "third"  person  or  the 
person  or  thing  spoken  of,  are  so  commonly  mis- 
used that  it  seems  best  to  give  their  inflections  in 
full. 


Sing. 

Plu. 

Sing.                      Plu. 

Nom. 

I 

we 

you                   you 

Pes. 

my 

our 

your                   your 

or  mine 

or  ours 

or  yours           or  yours 

Obj. 

me 

us 

you                    you 

Nom. 

thou 

ye 

he     she    it      they 

Pos. 

thy 

your 

his    her    its    their 

or  thine 

^r  yours 

{or  hers)            or  theirs 

Obj. 

thee 

you 

Singul 

him  her    it      them 
ar 

Nom. 

myself 

thyself 
or  yourself 

himself     herself    itself 

Pos. 

— 

— 

—              —           — 

Obj. 

myself 

r 

Nom.  c 

thyself 
or  yourself 

Plural 

himself     herself    itself 

mrselves        yourselves        themselves 

Pos. 

— 

— 

— 

Obj.     ourselves        yourselves        themselves 

Notice  that  there  are  no  such  forms  as  ourn, 
youer,  yourn,  hisn,  hern,  their  n,  their  selves,  its- 
self,  and  that  in  no  form  is  the  apostrophe  used. 
YouWe,  3,  contracted  form  of  you  are,  is  often  con- 
fused with  your. 

The  relative  pronouns  are  so  called  because  they 
"  relate  "  or  refer  to  substantives.     Since  at  the 


SENTENCE  ANALYSIS  i6i 

same  time  they  introduce  clauses,  thus  serving  as 
connectives,  they  are  also  called  conjunctive  pro- 
nouns. Of  all  the  conjunctions,  who  alone  is 
inflected. 


Sing. 

Plu. 

Nom. 

who 

who 

Pos. 

whose 

whose 

Obj. 

whom 

whom 

Notice  that  there  Is  no  such  form  as  whoes  or 
whos.     PFho^s  is  a  contracted  form  of  who  is. 

The  interrogatives,  so  called  because  used  in 
asking  questions,  are  not  inflected,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  who,  which  differs  in  no  respect  from 
the  relative  who. 

The  demonstratives  this  and  that,  with  their 
plural  forms  these  and  those,  direct  attention  to 
persons  or  things,  pointing  them  out.  Be  careful 
not  to  use  the  personal  pronoun  as  if  it  were  a 
demonstrative.  Look  at  them  boys  should  be 
Look  at  those  hoys.  Remember  too  that  these 
and  those  are  plural  forms,  while  sort  and  kind 
are  singular.  These  kind,  those  sort,  and  similar 
vulgarisms  are  very  common. 

The  indefinites,  so  called  because  they  do  not 
definitely  represent  particular  persons  or  things, 
are  a  low  order  of  pronoun,  more  often  used  as 
adjectives.  Indeed,  many  pronouns  do  double 
duty,  serving  now  as  pronouns,  now  as  adjectives; 
and  we  have  seen  that  relative  pronouns  serve  as 
conjunctions.  This  leads  to  confusion,  which  dis- 
appears only  when  we  apply  to  a  word  in  a  given 


1 62        DICTIONARY  AND  GRAMMAR 


sentence  the  name  which  best  describes  the  service 
it  performs  in  that  sentence. 

In  the  first  group  of  sentences  given  below,  the 
pronouns  are  used  like  nouns,  serving  as  subject, 
object,  etc.,  the  numbers  corresponding  to  those 
in  the  noun  table.  Notice  that  the  pronoun  is 
not  used  as  an  adverbial  objective.  In  the  second 
group,  the  pronouns  take  the  place  of  nouns  and 
at  the  same  time  serve  as  connectives. 

I.  This  is  the  forest  primeval.  2.  Take  it,  if 
you  wish.  3.  Please  give  him  my  cane.  4.  May 
we  go  with  himl  5.  My  courage  weakens,  and 
so,  I  suspect,  does  yours,  6.  A  few  fortunate 
ones,  those  who  had  clear  records  in  deportment, 
were  permitted  to  go.  7.  This  is  he.  8.  This 
having  been  attended  to,  we  retired  for  the  night. 
9.  Go  to  the  ant,  thou  sluggard. 

I.  Let  him  who  standeth  take  heed  lest  he  fall. 
2.  This  is  the  malt  that  lay  in  the  house  that  Jack 
built.  . 


articles  :  a,  an,  the 

numerals :  one,  two,  first,  sec- 

.   ond,  etc. 

pronominals:  my,  thy,  his,  her, 

its  :  this,  that ;  which,  what ; 

each,  every,  either,  neither, 

some,  any,   many,   few,  all, 

both,  other 


Adjec-  , 
tives 


Kinds 


limiting 


I  common 
descriptive  ^p^^pgj. 

Forms  :    positive,  comparative,  superlative 

How  used  :     To  modify  substantives  attributively, 
appositively,  and  predicatively 


SENTENCE  ANALYSIS  163 

Adjectives  present  few  difficulties,  except  as  they 
change  to  Indicate  degrees  of  comparison.  In  some 
cases  degree  Is  Indicated  by  an  entire  change  of 
word,  as  In  good,  better,  best;  In  others  -er  and  -est 
are  added  to  the  positive  form,  as  In  sweet, 
sweeter,  sweetest;  and  In  still  others  the  compara- 
tive and  the  superlative  are  Indicated  by  placing 
more  and  most  or  less  and  least  before  the  adjec- 
tive. No  rule  covers  all  cases ;  what  Is  right  must 
be  learned  through  observation.  Uneducated  peo- 
ple sometimes  forget  that  a  proper  adjective — 
that  Is,  an  adjective  derived  from  a  proper  noun, 
as  Roman  derived  from  the  proper  noun  Rome — 
should  begin  with  a  capital.  The  distinction  be- 
tween a  pronoun  and  a  pronominal  adjective  Is  not 
troublesome  If  we  remember  that  the  adjective 
always  modifies  a  substantive. 
Pronoun :  This  is  my  book. 

What  others  have  done,  we  may  do. 

Each  may  take  one. 

One  may  be  mistaken. 
Adjective:  This  book  belongs  to  me. 

The  other  house  is  preferable. 

We  do  a  little  better  each  time. 

One  day  follows  another. 
The  three  ways  In  which  an  adjective  may  be 
used — perhaps  we  should  say  four  ways,  since  an 
adjective  is  sometimes  used  as  a  noun — are  here 
illustrated. 

I.  The  green  fields  invite  us.  2.  The  crowd,  heedless, 
rushed  into  danger.  3.  The  fields  are  green.  4.  The 
wicked  shall  perish. 


1 64        DICTIONARY  AND  GRAMMAR 


Kinds 


Verbs  ^  ^^^^^ 


1.  Transitive,  intransitive 

2.  Strong  conjugation,  weak  conjugation 

Voice  :  active,  passive 
Mood :  indicative,   subjunctive,   potential^ 
imperative 

Tense  :  present,  past,  future,  perfect,  past 

perfect,  future  perfect 
Person  :   first,  second,  third 
Number :  singular,  plural 
Verbals  :  infinitives,  participles 

.  How  used:  (i)  To  form  the  essential  part  of  the 
predicate  ;  (2)  to  serve  as  a  substan- 
tive (infinitive)  ;  (3)  to  serve  as  an 
adjective  (participle) 


The  verb  is  a  difficult  part  of  speech  to  master. 
Very  few — perhaps  It  Is  safe  to  say  not  more  than 
one  in  a  hundred — ever  do  master  it.  Gramma- 
rians cannot  agree  perfectly  on  all  points  relating 
to  it,  and  they  differ  widely  in  regard  to  the  names 
which  should  be  applied  to  its  various  forms  and 
relations.  We  shall  try,  without  going  too  deeply 
Into  matters,  to  get  hold  of  such  essentials  as 
are  needed  in  order  to  talk  about  verbs  intelli- 
gibly and  use  them  with  a  reasonable  degree  of 
correctness. 

A  verb  is  used  transitively  when  it  requires  an 
object  to  complete  its  meaning;  that  Is,  when  It 
requires  a  substantive  to  "  receive  Its  action,"  as 
in  the  sentence  Jack  built  a  house.  A  verb  Is  used 
intransitively  when  it  does  not  require  an  object, 
as  in  the  sentence  The  sun  shines.    Some  verbs  are 


SENTENCE  ANALYSIS  165 

always   used   Intransitively,    others   may   be   used 
either  way.     (See  Exercise  129  on  page  196.) 

Verbs  are  said  to  be  of  the  strong  or  the  weak 
conjugation  according  to  the  way  they  are  in- 
flected. Weak  verbs  regularly  add  d  or  ed  to  the 
root  to  form  the  past  tense  and  the  past  participle. 
Strong  verbs  regularly  change  the  vowel  of  the 
root,  either  in  the  past  tense  or  in  the  past  parti- 
ciple or  in  both,  and  sometimes  add  n  or  en  to  form 
the  past  participle. 

Weak  conjugation:  work,  worked,  worked 
Strong  conjugation:  speak,  spoke,  spoken 

Many  verbs,  both  strong  and  weak,  are  In- 
flected more  or  less  irregularly,  and  some  irregu- 
larities are  so  misleading  that  it  Is  often  difficult 
to  tell  to  what  conjugation  a  verb  belongs  even 
though  its  principal  parts,  as  the  present,  past,  and 
past  participle  forms  are  called,  are  familiar  to 
us.  It  is  a  comfort  to  reflect  that  knowing  the 
principal  parts  of  a  verb  is  of  more  importance 
than  being  able  to  tell  to  what  conjugation  It  be- 
longs.    (See  Exercise  125  on  page  192.) 

Perhaps  the  best  way  to  get  at  the  many  diffi- 
culties presented  by  voice,  mood,  and  tense  will  be 
to  display  a  complete  verb.  Pronouns  will  be  used 
for  the  purpose  of  showing  the  various  forms 
called  for  by  subjects  In  the  first,  second,  and  third 
person,  singular  and  plural;  for  a  verb  *'  agrees  " 
with  Its  subject  in  person  and  number.     It  should 


i66        DICTIONARY  AND  GRAMMAR 

be  remembered  that  the  pronoun  is  not  a  part  of 
the  verb. 

ACTIVE  VOICE 

INDICATIVE  MOOD 


Simple  Form 


I  love 

you  love  or  thou 

lovest  * 
he  loves 


we  love 
you  love 
they  love 


Emphatic  Form 

PRESENT 

I  do  love 

you  do  love  or  thou 

dost  love 
he  does  love  or  he 

doth  love 

we  do  love 

you  ipr  ye)  do  love 

they  do  love 


Progressive  Form 


I  am  loving 
you  are  loving  or 
thou  art  loving 
he  is  loving 

we  are  loving 

you  {or  ye)  are  loving 

they  are  loving 


PAST 

I  loved  I  did  love 

you  loved  or  thou  you  did  love  or 

lovedst  thou  didst  love 

he  loved  he  did  love 


we  loved 
you  loved 

they  loved 


I  shall  love 
you  will  love 
he  will  love 

we  shall  love 
you  will  love 
they  will  love 


we  did  love 
you  {or  ye)  did 

love 
they  did  love 

SIMPLE  future 


I  was  loving 
you  were  loving  or 
thou  wast  loving 
he  was  loving 

we  were  loving 

you  {or  ye)  were  loving 

they  were  loving 


I  shall  be  loving 
you  will  be  loving 
he  will  be  loving 

we  shall  be  loving 
you  will  be  loving 
they  will  be  loving 


*  The  older  forms  for  the  second  person  are  given  in  the  present  and  pjist 
tenses  only,  though  they  arc  found  in  other  tenses  as  well. 


SENTENCE  ANALYSIS 


167 


VOLITIONAL   FUTURE 


I  will  love 
you  shall  love 
he  shall  love 
we  will  love 
you  shall  love 
they  shall  love 

I  have  loved 
you  have  loved 
he  has  loved 
we  have  loved 
you  have  loved 
they  have  loved 

I  had  loved 
you  had  loved 
he  had  loved 
we  had  loved 
you  had  loved 
they  had  loved 

1  shall  have  loved 
you  will  have  loved 
he  will  have  loved 
we  shall  have  loved 
you  will  have  loved 
they  will  have  loved 


PERFECT 


PAST  PERFECT 


I  will  be  loving 
you  shall  be  loving 
he  shall  be  loving 
we  will  be  loving 
you  shall  be  loving 
they  shall  be  loving 

I  have  been  loving 
you  have  been  loving 
he  has  been  loving 
we  have  been  loving 
you  have  been  loving 
they  have  been  loving 

I  had  been  loving 
you  had  been  loving 
he  had  been  loving 
we  had  been  loving 
you  had  been  loving 
they  had  been  loving 


FUTURE   PERFECT 


I  shall  have  been  loving 
you  will  have  been  loving 
he  will  have  been  loving 
we  shall  have  been  loving 
you  will  have  been  loving 
they  will  have  been  loving 


SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD 

Emphatic  Form  Progressive  Form 

PRESENT 

(if)  I,  you,  he  love   (if)  I,  you,  he  do  love  (if)  I,  you,  he  be 

loving 

(if)  we,  you,  they    (if)  we,  you,  they  do  (if)  we,  you,  they  be 

love  loving 


SIMPLE  Form 


love 


1 68        DICTIONARY  AND  GRAMMAR 

PAST 

(if)  I,  you,  he  loved  (if)  I,  you,    he,    did  (if)  I,  you,  he  were 

love  loving 

(if)  we,  you,  they   (if)  we,  you,  they  did  (if)  we,  you,  they 

loved                         did  love  were  loving 

POTENTIAL  MOOD 
Simple  Form  Progressive  Form 

PRESENT 

I,  you,  he  may*  love  I,  you,  he  may  be  loving 

we,  you,  they  may  love  we,  you,  they  may  be  loving 

PAST 

I,  you,  he  might  f  love  I,  you,  he  might  be  loving 

we,  you,  they  might  love  we,  you,  they  might  be  loving 

PERFECT 

I,  you,  he  may  *  have  loved     I,  you,  he  may  have  been  loving 
we,  you,  they  may  have  loved   we,  you,  they  may  have  been 

loving 

PAST   PERFECT 

I,  you,  he  might  f  have  loved    I,  you,  he  might  have  been  lov- 
ing 
we,   you,  they  might  have    we,  you,  they  might  have  been 
loved  loving 

IMPERATIVE  MOOD 

PRESENT 

love  do  love  be  loving 

INFINITIVES 

PRESENT 

to  love,  loving  to  be  loving 

PERFECT 

to  have  loved,  having  loved  to  have  been  loving 


loving 


PARTICIPLES 
PRESENT 


having  loved  having  been  loving 

*  Can  and  must  are  other  potential  auxiliaries. 
f  Could,  would  and  should  are  other  auxiliaries. 


SENTENCE  ANALYSIS 


169 


Simple  Form 

I  am  loved 
you  are  loved 
he  is  loved 

we  are  loved 
you  are  loved 
they  are  loved 

I  was  loved 
you  were  loved 
he  was  loved 

we  were  loved 
you  were  loved 
they  were  loved 

I  shall  be  loved 
I  will  be  loved 
1  have  been  loved 
I  had  been  loved 


PASSIVE  VOICE 

INDICATIVE  MOOD 

PROGRESSIVE  FORM 
PRESENT 

I  am  being  loved 
you  are  being  loved 
he  is  being  loved 

we  are  being  loved 
you  are  being  loved 
they  are  being  loved 

PAST 

I  was  being  loved 
you  were  being  loved 
he  was  being  loved 

we  were  being  loved 
you  were  being  loved 
they  were  being  loved 

SIMPLE  FUTURE 
VOLITIONAL  FUTURE 


PAST  PERFECT 


FUTURE  PERFECT 


I  shall  have  been  loved 


(if)  I  be  loved 
(if)  I  were  loved 

I  may  be  loved 


SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD 
PRESENT 


PAST 


(if)  I  were  being  loved 


POTENTIAL  MOOD 

PRESENT 


170        DICTIONARY  AND  GRAMMAR 

PAST 

I  might  be  loved 

PERFECT 

I  may  have  been  loved 

PAST   PERFECT 

I  might  have  been  loved 

IMPERATIVE  MOOD 

PRESENT 

be  loved 

INFINITIVES 

PRESENT 

to  be  loved,  being  loved 

PERFECT 

to  have  been  loved,  having  been  loved 

PARTICIPLES 
PRESENT 

being  loved 

PAST 

loved 

PERFECT 

having  been  loved 

As  we  study  this  display,  we  note  first  of  all  that 
though  the  verb  has  a  few  inflections — loves, 
loved,  loving — its  conjugation  is  made  up  largely 
of  phrases  in  which  am,  have,  do,  shall,  will,  may, 
etc.,  appear.  These  words,  verbs  all  of  them, 
are  called  auxiliaries,  because  they  are  used  prin- 
cipally in  combination  with  other  verbs,  helping  to 
express  various  shades  of  meaning.  It  is  good 
mental  exercise  to  dissect  a  long  phrase  like  may 
have  been  loving  and  try  to  determine  what  each 


SENTENCE  ANALYSIS  171 

word  does  toward  completing  the  Idea;  but  ordi- 
narily It  Is  better  for  the  young  student  to  think 
of  the  phrase  as  If  It  were  all  a  single  word.  (See 
Exercise  127  on  page  194.) 

The  Indicative  mood  Is  used  In  plain,  straight- 
away assertion  and  question.  It  presents  no  diffi- 
culties except  In  two  tenses,  the  past  and  the  future, 
and  these  must  be  examined  with  great  care. 

Was  Is  singular,  were  is  plural.  It  Is  therefore 
Incorrect  to  write  They  was  all  present,  We  was 
pleased  to  see  him;  for  the  verb  should  agree  with 
Its  subject  in  number.  But  note  that  nowhere  Is 
was  found  in  the  second  person  singular.  It  Is 
you  were  loving  and  not  you  was  loving,  you  were 
being  loved  and  not  you  was  being  loved.  It  Is 
odd  that  the  plural  form  were  should  be  used  with 
the  singular  pronoun  you,  but  It  Is  so  used  by  those 
who  speak  correctly.  Those  who  say  you  was  In- 
stead of  you  were  belong,  as  a  rule,  to  the  large, 
unfortunate  class  who  use  aint  and  haint  for  am 
not  and  haven't.  Aint  and  haint  are  forms  un- 
known to  grammar. 

Shall  and  will  are  troublesome  because  each  per- 
forms a  double  service,  sometimes  indicating  plain 
futurity  and  sometimes  volition,  or  an  act  of  the 
will.  They  cease  to  give  trouble  when  the  mean- 
ing of  the  words  futurity  and  volition  is  clearly 
understood  and  a  few  simple  rules  have  been 
mastered.  When  one  says  /  shall  be  twenty  to- 
morrozv,  or  Friday  will  be  the  thirteenth,  he  does 
not  mean  that  he  Is  determined  to  be  twenty  on 


172         DICTIONARY  AND  GRAMMAR 

the  morrow,  or  that  he  promises  to  make  Friday 
the  thirteenth,  for  these  are  matters  over  which 
he  has  no  control;  he  simply  states  a  future  cer- 
tainty. On  the  other  hand  /  will  give  you  a  dollar 
for  your  knife  Is  a  promise;  and  He  shall  siifer 
for  this  Is  a  threat  or  the  expression  of  determina- 
tion. Promises,  threats,  resolves,  and  the  like,  are 
acts  of  the  will ;  they  come  under  the  general  term 
volition.  Three  rules  cover  nearly  all  troublesome 
cases. 

I.  To  express  a  simple  future,  use  shall  with  the 
first  person,  will  with  the  second  and  the  third. 

II.  To  express  volition,  use  will  with  the  first  per- 
son, shall  with  the  second  and  the  third. 

III.  In  an  interrogative  sentence,  use  shall  with 
the  first  person  always.  With  the  second  person  and 
the  third  use  shall  when  shall  is  expected  in  the 
answer  and  will  when  will  is  expected  in  the  answer. 

(See  Exercises  132  and  133  on  pages  200-201.) 
The  subjunctive  mood  is  used  most  commonly 
In  conditional  clauses  to  imply  that  the  contrary  of 
that  which  is  stated  is  true,  as  In  the  sentence  // 
to-day  were  to-morrow^  we  should  know  all  about 
it.  It  is  also  used  sometimes  to  express  a  wish, 
as  in  the  sentence  O  that  I  were  home!  But  the 
subjunctive  mood  has  almost  disappeared  from 
our  common  speech.  The  idea  of  extreme  doubt, 
supposition,  condition  contrary  to  fact,  etc.,  re- 
mains, but  It  is  no  longer  expressed  by  a  separate 
system  of  forms  such  as  we  have  In  the  Indicative 
mood.    The  indicative  and  potential  forms,  helped 


SENTENCE  ANALYSIS  173 

out  not  a  little  by  the  conjunctions  i/,  though ,  un- 
less, except,  lest,  and  whether,  now  do  most  of  the 
work  formerly  done  by  the  subjunctive.  Little 
attention,  therefore,  need  be  paid  to  this  mood,  ex- 
cept in  a  single  case  where  it  still  performs  an  im- 
portant service.  Notice  carefully  the  indicative 
and  subjunctive  past  tense  progressive  forms  of 
the  verb  love. 

Indicative 
I  was  loving  we  were  loving 

you  were  loving  you  were  loving 

he  was  loving  they  were  loving 

Subjunctive 
if  I  were  loving  if  we  were  loving 

if  you  were  loving       if  you  were  loving 
if  he  were  loving         if  they  were  loving 

The  if  is  not  a  part  of  the  verb ;  it  appears  in  con- 
nection with  the  subjunctive  merely  because  some 
such  conjunction  is  frequently,  though  not  always, 
used  with  that  mood.  It  may  be  used  with  the 
indicative  too;  but  if  I  was  loving  and  if  I  were 
loving  do  not  mean  the  same  thing.  The  former 
expresses  a  simple  condition  in  past  time;  the  lat- 
ter has  nothing  to  do  with  past  time,  but  sets  forth 
a  state  of  affairs  contrary  to  fact  or  merely  thought 
of.     Note  the  following  sentences: 

If  the  day  was  pleasant,  they  must  have  enjoyed  the 
drive. 

If  the  day  were  pleasant,  they  might  enjoy  the  drive. 

In  the  first  sentence  the  speaker  tells  simply 
what  must  have  happened  under  a  given  condition. 


174        DICTIONARY  AND  GRAMMAR 

The  sentence  has  to  do  with  past  time.  It  does 
not  suppose  something  which  is  not  true;  it  is  a 
pure  conditional  sentence.  In  the  second  there  is 
an  element  of  make-believe.  The  day,  we  know 
at  once,  is  not  pleasant,  but  the  speaker  imagines 
what  might  happen  were  the  day  different.  The 
sentence  has  nothing  to  do  with  past  time.  The 
rule  covering  the  use  of  the  two  moods  in  the  past 
tense  is  as  follows: 

Use  the  past  tense  of  the  indicative  to  express  sim- 
ple condition  in  past  time.  Use  the  past  tense  of 
the  subjunctive  to  express  the  idea  of  uncertainty, 
extreme  doubt,  or  condition  contrary  to  fact  in  pres- 
ent time.     (See  Exercise  131  on  page  199.) 

Potential  is  a  term,  old-fashioned  and  very 
much  too  narrow  but  still  convenient,  applied  by 
some  to  all  verb  phrases  containing  the  auxiliaries 
may,  can,  must,  might,  could,  would,  or  should, 
auxiliaries  which  help  the  verbs  they  accom- 
pany to  express  a  variety  of  ideas  such  as  obli- 
gation, power,  possibility,  liberty.  Many  gram- 
marians believe  that  there  is  no  potential  mood; 
the  so-called  potentials  they  class  as  indicatives 
and  subjunctives.  It  is  of  more  importance  that 
we  learn  to  use  may,  can,  and  the  rest  of  the  aux- 
iliaries correctly  than  it  is  that  we  settle  this  dis- 
puted point. 

May,  can,  would,  and  should  are  the  four  aux- 
iliaries most  commonly  misused.  Can  denotes 
ability  to  do.  May  sometimes  denotes  a  wish,  as 
in  the  sentence  May  you  have  a  pleasant  journey; 


SENTENCE  ANALYSIS  175 

and  sometimes  possibility,  as  in  the  sentence  It 
may  rain;  and  sometimes  permission,  as  in  the  sen- 
tence You  may  go  now.  The  point  to  be  remem- 
bered is  this: 

Can  denotes  ability  to  do;  may  denotes  permis- 
sion. Hence  You  can  go  means  You  are  able  to 
go;  You  may  go  means  I  give  you  permission  to 
go.     (See  Exercise  135  on  page  202.) 

Should  is  sometimes  used  to  express  the  idea  of 
duty  or  obligation,  and  would  to  express  the  idea 
of  accustomed  action,  as  in  the  sentences  JVe 
should  be  just  to  our  enemies  and  We  would  hear 
the  swallows  chattering  in  the  big  chimney  when- 
ever the  mother  bird  brought  food.  But  they  are 
used  also  like  shall  and  will  and  in  a  general  way 
follow  the  same  rules,  should  corresponding  to 
shall,  and  would  corresponding  to  will.  This  is  seen 
when  a  sentence  in  direct  discourse  is  turned  into 
indirect  discourse.  He  said,  '^  I  shall  be  home  to- 
morrow^' becomes  He  said  that  he  should  be  home 
to-morrow.  He  said,  ''  /  will  help  pay  for  the 
boat "  becomes  He  said  he  would  help  pay  for  the 
boat.  In  a  conditional  clause,  should  is  used  with 
all  three  persons  to  express  futurity  and  would 
with  all  three  persons  to  express  volition;  but  in 
the  principal  clause  of  a  conditional  sentence, 
should  and  would  follow  the  rules  for  shall  and 
will. 

Simple  future;  If  he  should  call,  I  should  be  glad  to 
see  him. 


176        DICTIONARY  AND  GRAMMAR 

Volition:  If  he  should  need  money,  I  would  send  him 
a  draft. 

All  this  is  quite  puzzling,  but  we  may  simplify 
matters  a  little  by  remembering  two  rules  which 
cover  nearly  all  troublesome  cases. 

I.  In  indirect  discourse  use  should  where  shall 
would  be  used  in  direct  discourse ;  use  vyxtuld  where 
will  would  be  used  in  direct  discourse. 

II.  In  the  principal  clause  of  a  conditional  sen- 
tence, use  should  with  the  first  person  and  would 
with  the  second  and  third  persons  to  express  simple 
future.  Use  would  with  the  first  person  and  should 
with  the  second  and  third  persons  to  express  voli- 
tional future.      (See  Exercise  134  on  page  201.) 

Infinitives  are  verb  forms  that  are  used  like 
nouns,  and  participles  are  verb  forms  that  are  used 
like  adjectives.  They  retain  the  essential  idea  of 
the  verb  from  which  they  are  derived;  like  verbs 
they  have  voice  and  tense;  and  they  may  be  modi- 
fied as  verbs  are  modified,  and  may  govern  the  ob- 
jective case.  At  the  same  time  they  have  the 
force  of  nouns  and  adjectives. 

The  verb  always  forms  the  principal  part  of  the 
predicate,  stating  or  asking  something  concerning 
the  substantive  which  serves  as  its  subject.  The 
principal  ways  in  which  infinitives  and  participles 
are  used  are  illustrated  below.  Note  that  while 
the  infinitive  commonly  serves  as  a  substantive,  the 
substantive  idea  is  seen  but  dimly  in  the  last  three 
examples  in  the  first  group.     The  last  sentence  in 


SENTENCE  ANALYSIS 


177 


the  second  group  shows  the  participle  In  what  Is 
called  the  absolute  construction. 

I.  To  give  Is  more  blessed  than  to  receive.  2.  Ask 
him  to  wait  for  us.  3.  I  purchased  this  before  see- 
ing the  others.  4.  Winning  a  battle  is  not  always 
gaining  what  one  desires.  5.  It  is  never  too  late 
to  mend.  6.  We  went  to  the  beach  to  gather  drift- 
wood. 7.  It  was  a  victory  to  be  proud  of.  8.  I 
am  glad  to  hear  such  good  news. 

I.  There  is  a  familiar  adage  about  whistling  girls. 
2.  I  left  him  standing  by  the  road.  3.  The  dog, 
barking  furiously,  soon  frightened  them  away.  4. 
Having  sung  till  we  could  sing  no  more,  we  covered 
the  embers  and  prepared  for  bed.  5.  The  bell 
having  rung,  we  formed  in  line. 


r  Kinds 


Adverbs  - 


'Simple 

f  hence,  how,  however,  now, 

so,   then,    thence,   when, 

Conjunctive  ^      whence,  where,  whither, 

why,  etc. 
Expletive:  there 
L  Responsives  :  yes,  no 
Forms  :  positive,  comparative,  superlative 


How  used  :  To  modify  verbs,  adjectives,  and  other 
adverbs  ;  to  serve  as  conjunctions 

Adverbs  are  easily  recognized,  especially  the 
simple  ones  indicating  time,  place,  motion,  manner, 
etc.     A  few  are  compared  like  adjectives. 

much,  more,  most 

soon,  sooner,  soonest 

quickly,  more  quickly,  most  quickly 

Conjunctive  adverbs  are  so  called  because  they 


178        DICTIONARY  AND  GRAMMAR 

introduce  subordinate  clauses  much  as  relative 
pronouns  do,  at  the  same  time  serving  as  modifiers. 

Where  have  they  gone? 

They  have  gone  where  we  cannot  follow. 

In  the  first  sentence,  where  is  plainly  an  adverb. 
In  the  second,  it  serves  not  only  as  an  adverb  but 
as  a  conjunction  joining  They  have  gone  and  we 
cannot  follow;  hence  it  is  a  conjunctive  adverb. 
The  expletive  there,  seen  in  such  sentences  as 
There  was  mounting  in  hot  haste,  is  so  called  be- 
cause it  "  fills  out."  Since  it  stands  first,  often- 
times, where  we  naturally  expect  to  find  the  sub- 
ject, it  is  frequently  mistaken  for  the  subject  and 
made  to  govern  the  verb.  Thus  we  have  such 
errors  as  There  was  four  of  us;  for  the  thought- 
less person  assumes  that  the  expletive  must  be 
singular  and  so  should  be  followed  by  a  verb  in  the 
singular  number.  Yes  and  no,  almost  always  used 
independently,  are  not,  strictly  speaking,  adverbs 
at  all,  since  they  modify  nothing. 

The  following  sentences  show  how  adverbs  are 
used. 

I.  Go  quietly.  2.  What  could  be  more  beauti- 
ful! 3.  She  sleeps  most  soundly  now.  4.  He  will 
come  when  we  are  ready.  5.  There  are  many  rea- 
sons why  we  should  go.    6.  Yes,  let  us  be  patient. 


Prepositions 


Kinds  :  All  of  the  same  kind 

Forms  :  No  changes  in  form 

How  used  :  To  connect  words  and  show  the 
relation  between  them 


SENTENCE  ANALYSIS  179 

Prepositions  form  but  a  small  group,  a  hundred 
or  so,  not  more  than  fifty  or  sixty  of  which  are  in 
common  use.  All  are  of  the  same  kind,  do  the 
same  thing;  they  introduce  phrases,  connecting 
substantives  with  other  words  and  showing  the  re- 
lationship between  them.  The  object  of  a  prepo- 
sition is  in  the  objective  case.  When  a  preposi- 
tional phrase  modifies  a  substantive,  it  is  called 
an  adjective  phrase;  when  it  is  used  like  an  adverb, 
it  is  called  an  adverbial  phrase.  (See  Exercise  118 
on  page  184.) 

Adjective:  He  wore  a  badge  of  blue  ribbon. 
Adverbial:  They  will  come  in  the  morning. 


r Kinds:         Coordinate,  subordinate 
Conjunctions-/  Forms  :        No  changes  in  form 

[  How  used :  To  connect  words,  phrases,  clauses 

Conjunctions  dlflfer  from  prepositions  in  that  the 
former  are  frequently  employed  to  connect  clauses, 
while  the  latter  are  always  employed  to  connect 
single  words.  When  a  conjunction  is  used  to  con- 
nect single  words,  the  words  are  in  the  same  con- 
struction; that  Is,  they  are  used  alike,  are  of  the 
same  rank.  The  two  words  joined  by  a  preposi- 
tion are  always  of  unequal  rank. 

The  house  and  the  barn  were  burned. 
The  hay  was  stored  in  the  barn. 

In  the  first  sentence  house  and  barn  are  in  the  same 


i8o        DICTIONARY  AND  GRAMMAR 

construction;  that  Is,  both  are  subjects  of  the  same 
verb.  Was  stored  and  harn,  in  the  second  sen- 
tence, are  in  different  constructions;  harn  modifies 
was  stored  adverbially.  It  is  not  difficult,  there- 
fore, to  tell  whether  a  given  connective  is  a  prepo- 
sition or  a  conjunction;  but  it  is  sometimes  puz- 
zling to  tell  whether  a  conjunction  is  coordinate 
or  subordinate.  Coordinate  conjunctions  connect 
words,  phrases,  and  clauses  which  have  the  same 
grammatical  relation;  that  is,  are  in  the  same 
construction.  Subordinate  conjunctions  introduce 
subordinate  clauses,  and  are  found,  therefore.  In 
complex  sentences  only.  There  are  three  kinds  of 
subordinate  or  dependent  clauses:  adjective,  ad- 
verbial, and  noun  or  substantive.  If  one  can  learn 
to  recognize  these  three  kinds,  he  should  have  no 
difficulty  in  distinguishing  between  the  two  kinds  of 
conjunctions.  A  noun  clause  is  used  like  a  noun,  an 
adjective  clause  is  used  like  an  adjective,  and  an 
adverbial  clause  Is  used  like  an  adverb.  The  first 
three  illustrations  given  below  contain  subordinate 
conjunctions  introducing  noun  clauses,  the  remain- 
ing ones  contain  subordinate  conjunctions  introduc- 
ing adjective  and  adverbial  clauses. 

I.  That  the  steamship  is  lost  is  beyond  all  ques- 
tion. 2.  They  report  that  the  steamship  is  lost.  3. 
It  all  depends  on  where  the  steamship  went  ashore. 
4.  The  steamship  struck  while  the  passengers  were 
at  dinner.  5.  //  it  had  not  been  foggy,  the  acci- 
dent would  not  have  happened.     6.  Do  unto  others 


SENTENCE  ANALYSIS  i8i 

as  you  would  have  them  do  unto  you.  7.  Return 
to  the  place  whence  you  came.  8.  There  was  a  time 
when  we  could  have  escaped. 

All  connectives — prepositions,  relative  pronouns, 
simple  conjunctions,  conjunctive  adverbs — are  ex- 
ceedingly important  in  that  they  bind  together  the 
various  parts  of  a  sentence.  (See  Exercises  119 
and  137  on  pages  185  and  204.) 


Selecting  items  here  and  there  from  the  preced- 
ing paragraphs,  combining  and  condensing  them, 
we  have  the  following  summary  concerning  how 
words  are  used  in  the  building  of  sentences. 

I.  Every  sentence  must  have  a  subject  and  a  predicate,  the 
former  naming  that  concerning  which  something  is  asserted 
or  some  question  asked,  the  latter  asserting  or  asking  some- 
thing concerning  that  which  the  subject  names.  The  vital 
part  of  the  predicate  is  always  a  verb.  The  vital  part  of  the 
subject  is  always  a  noun  or  some  word  or  word-group  that  is 
used  like  a  noun. 

II.  The  meaning  of  a  verb  may  be  modified  (i)  by  a  noun  or 
pronoun  objective,  (2)  by  a  predicate  noun  or  adjective  quali- 
ifying  the  subject  of  the  verb,  (3)  by  an  adverb,  an  adverbial 
phrase,  or  an  adverbial  clause.  The'  meaning  of  a  noun  may 
be  changed  (i)  by  an  adjective,  (2)  by  a  noun  or  a  pronoun  in 
the  possessive  case,  (3)  by  a  phrase  or  a  clause.  An  adjec- 
tive may  be  modified  by  an  adverb,  an  adverb  by  another 
adverb. 

Several  of  the  rules  governing  person,  number, 
gender,  and  case  have  been  given  or  implied  In 
earlier  paragraphs.  Supplementing  these  we  have 
the  following. 


1 82        DICTIONARY  AND  GRAMMAR 

I.  The  subject  of  a  verb  is  in  the  nominative  case. 
II.  A  verb  agrees  with  its  subject  in  person  and  number. 

III.  A  noun  or  pronoun  the  object,  direct  or  indirect,  of  a 

verb  is  in  the  objective  case. 

IV.  A  predicate  noun  or  pronoun  agrees  in  case  with  the 

subject  it  qualifies. 
V.  A  word  in  apposition  with  another  word  agrees  with 

it  in  case. 
VI.  A  noun  or  pronoun  governed  by  a  preposition  is  in  the 

objective  case. 
VII.  A  pronoun  agrees  with  its  antecedent  in  person,  num- 
ber, and  gender. 
VIII.  A  noun  or  pronoun  with  an  appositive  adjective  or  its 
equivalent  is  sometimes  used  in  the  nominative  case 
absolutely. 


EXERCISE  116 

Point  out  the  subject  of  each  sentence.  If  the 
subject  is  made  up  of  more  than  one  word,  analyze 
it,  showing  how  the  bare  subject  is  expanded. 
How  many  kinds  of  modifiers  do  you  find? 

I.  Clouds  will  intervene.  2.  Honor  and  shame  from 
no  condition  rise.  —3.  A  pleasing  countenance  Is  a  silent 
recommendation.  4.  A  fool's  bolt  is  soon  shot.  -^.  The 
proof  of  the  pudding  Is  In  the  eating.  — ^.  What  cannot 
be  cured  must  be  endured.  7.  He  who  arrives  first  at 
the  mill  should  first  have  his  grist.  8.  To  be  poor  with- 
out being  free  Is  the  worst  state  Into  which  man  can 
fall.  9.  In  the  lexicon  of  youth,  which  fate  reserves  for 
a  bright  manhood,  there  Is  no  such  word  as  fall.  10.  It 
is  better  to  fall  from  the  window  than  from  the  roof.  11. 
Count  not  your  chickens  before  they  are  hatched.     12. 


SENTENCE  ANALYSIS  183 

Avarice,   mother   of    all   wickedness,    always   thirsty   for 
more,  opens  wide  her  jaws  for  gold. 

13.  The  Sunflower,  thinking  'twas  for  him  foul  shame 
To  nap  by  daylight,  strove  t'excuse  the  blame; 
It  was  not  sleep  that  made  him  nod,  he  said, 
But  too  great  weight  and  largeness  of  his  head. 

— Cowley 


EXERCISE  117 

Point  out  the  predicate  of  each  sentence.  If 
the  verb  is  modified,  analyze  the  predicate,  show- 
ing how  it  is  expanded.  How  many  kinds  of  mod- 
ifiers do  you  find? 

I.  Time  flies.  2.  Make  haste  slowly.  3.  Light  gains 
make  a  heavy  purse.  4.  A  thing  of  beauty  is  a  joy  forever. 
5.  At  night  all  cats  are  gray.  6.  Strike  while  the  iron 
is  hot.  7.  Give  us  this  day  our  daily  bread.  8.  Young 
folks  tell  what  they  do,  old  ones  what  they  have  done, 
and  fools  what  they  intend  to  do.  ^.-9.  A  soft  answer 
turneth  away  wrath;  but  grievous  words  stir  up  anger. 
— 'lO.  A  bad  workman  always  quarrels  with  his  tools.  11. 
—When  the  fox  is  asleep,  nothing  falls  into  his  mouth. 
12.  All  is  not  gold  that  glitters. 

13.  When  beechen  buds  begin  to  swell. 

And  woods  the  bluebird's  warble  know, 
The  yellow  violet's  modest  bell 

Peeps  from  the  last  year's  leaves  below. 

— Bryant 


1 84        DICTIONARY  AND  GRAMMAR 


EXERCISE  118 

Point  out  the  phrases  and  tell  what  each  one 
'modifies.      Analyze    each    phrase.      How    many 
kinds  do  you  findf 

■ — ^  I.  A  hare  is  not  caught  by  a  drum.     2.  Look  not  a 
gift-horse  in  the  mouth.    3.  It  is  necessary  to  wait  for  the 
lame  man.  — 4.  A  sparrow  in  the  hand  is  better  than  a 
goose  on  the  wing.    5.  Unto  the  pure  all  things  are  pure. 
6.  Burning  the  candle  at  both  ends  is  folly.     7.  To  be 
or  not  to  be — that  is  the  question.     8.  He  who  follows 
two  hares  is  sure  to  catch  neither.     9.  We  all  have  suffi- 
cient  strength   to   bear   the   misfortunes  of  others.      10. 
— Frightening  a  bird  is  not  the  way  to  catch  it.     11.  It  is 
—  great  folly  to  think  of  being  wise  alone.     12.  Please  ask 
him  to  remain  a  minute.     13.  By  following  the  trail  we 
easily  found  the  cabin.     14.  I   do  not  enjoy  being  left 
alone.     15.  The  brook,  winding  in   and  out,  at  length 
reaches  the  river.     16.  All  hope  having  been  abandoned, 
the  boat  was  allowed  to  drift.  -    17.  Having  been  warned 
of  their  danger,  the  girls  turned  back.     18.  The  snow, 
sweeping  across  the  open  fields,   piled  high  against  the 
cabin.     19.    Many  a  tale  is  lost  in  telling. 
20.  And  then  there  was  a  little  isle 
Which  in  my  very  face  did  smile. 

The  only  one  in  view; 
A  small  green  isle,  it  seemed  no  more. 
Scarce  broader  than  my  dungeon  door, 
But  in  it  there  were  three  tall  trees. 
And  o'er  it  blew- the  mountain  breeze, 
And  by  it  there  were  waters  flowing, 
And  on  it  there  were  young  flowers  growing 
Of  gentle  breath  and  hue. — Byron 


SENTENCE  ANALYSIS  185 


EXERCISE  119 

Point  out  and  analyze  each  clause.  Which 
ones  are  subordinate?  Which  of  the  subordinate 
clauses  are  noun  or  substantive?  adjective?  ad- 
verbial? 

I.  Adversity  makes  men,  and  prosperity  makes  mon- 
sters. ^-2.  He  who  has  good  health  is  rich,  though  he 
may  not  know  it.  3?— What  is  well  done  is  twice  done.  4. 
-Go  where  glory  waits.  5.  Ask  what  ye  will  and  it  shall 
be  granted.  6.  Honor  the  old,  instruct  the  young,  con- 
sult the  wise,  and  bear  with  the  foolish.  7.  He  that 
gathereth  in  the  summer  is  a  wise  son ;  but  he  that  sleepeth 
in  harvest  is  a  son  that  causeth  shame.  8r-Jf  the  sky  falls, 
we  shall  catch  larks.  ^r-One  does  not  always  know  who 
may  be  trusted.  10.  Tell  me  what  you  read  and  I  will 
tell  you  what  you  are.  11.  All  philosophy,  says  Epictetus, 
lies  in  the  two  words  sustain  and  abstain.  12.  We  must 
expect  to  work  for  what  we  get.  13.  Where  no  wood 
is,  there  the  fire  goeth  out.  14.  Much  may  be  made  of 
a  Scotchman,  Johnson  once  remarked,  if  he  be  caught 
young.  15.  Make  hay  while  the  sun  shines.  16.  Keep 
thy  shop  and  thy  shop  will  keep  thee.  17.  Let  another 
man  praise  thee,  and  not  thine  own  mouth;  a  stranger, 
and  not  thine  own  lips. 

18.  For  of  all  sad  words  of  tongue  or  pen, 

The  saddest  are  these:  "  It  might  have  been." 

— Whittier 

19,  Breathes  there  the  man  with  soul  so  dead, 
Who  never  to  himself  hath  said, 

"  This  is  my  own — my  native  land !  " — Scott 


1 86        DICTIONARY  AND  GRAMMAR 


EXERCISE  120 

Attention  has  been  called  to  the  fact  that  many 
words  are  used  now  as  one  part  of  speechy  now  as 
another.  Note  carefully  each  italicized  word  in 
the  sentences  below.  What  duty  does  it  perform? 
What  part  of  speech  is  it?  What  other  part  of 
speech  may  it  be  at  times? 

I.  Good,  quickly,  with,  or,  himself,  and  laughed  are 
common  words.  2.  Three  cheers  for  the  red,  white,  and 
blue\  3.  The  French  were  victorious.  4.  The  captain 
made  a  home  run.  5.  Six  of  the  boys  consented.  6.  Wait- 
~.ng  is  tiresome,  even  in  this  cool  waiting-room.  7.  To  go 
is  better  than  to  perish.  8.  The  tongue  of  the  just  is  as 
choice  silver.  9.  Be  just  to  your  enemies.  10.  It  called, 
just  then,  a  second  time.  1 1 .  They  say  he  lives  in  a  glass 
house.  12.  The  wandering  clouds  go  by.  13.  Why  do 
you  drive  so  fast"^ — ^4.  Oh,  young  Lochinvar  is  come  out 
of  the  West.  15.  Call  me  early,  for  I  must  take  an 
early  train.  16.  The  under  part  next  received  attention. 
17.  The  last  shall  be  first.  18.  He  pitched  an  in  curve. 
19.  He  must  be  there  by  now.  20.  Wait  till  the  clouds 
roll  by.  — 2ri.  Yonder  shepherd  beckons.  22v~took  yon- 
der\  23.  Try  hard  to  break  this  hard  stone.  24.  Good- 
bye, proud  world,  I'm  going  home.  25.  Please  black  the 
stove.  26.  The  public  made  known  their  wishes.  27. 
We  walked  about  the  garden.  28.  The  wind  blew  so 
strong  that  they  turned  about  and  walked  the  other  way. 
— 29.  Who  called  within?  30*-We  shall  be  there  within 
an  hour.  31.  I  am  about  through.  32.  Since  then,  we 
have  been  careful   to  lock  the   door.     33.  Where  shall 


SENTENCE  ANALYSIS  187 

you  house  your  canoe,  this  winter?  34.  The  culprit  was 
brought  before  the  judge.  35.  The  judge  had  never 
seen  him  before,  36.  He  escaped  before  he  had  served  his 
sentence.  37.  Do  not  remain  out  after  dark.  38.  The 
after  effects  were  unpleasant.  39.  We  purchased  a  to 
let  sign.  40.  I  will  come  after  I  have  finished  my  letter. 
41.  Slow  M^^  please !  42.  TA^Ms  too  bad.  43.  That  hoy 
is  an  athlete.  44.  The  errand  that  we  were  to  do  is 
now  unnecessary.  45.  I  think  that  we  may  go  now.  46. 
Now  what  part  of  speech  is  the  word  that"^  47.  My  ship 
rides  at  anchor.  48.  This  is  mine.  49.  This  boy  was 
called  Leonidas.  50.  Let  each  take  one.  51.  Each  girl 
may  take  two.  52.  Whose  name  was  mentioned  firstl 
53.  The  one  whose  name  is  called  first  must  go.  54. 
IVho  calls?  55.  He  goes  last  who  once  was  first.  56. 
Why  are  you  so  quiet?  57.  The  train  was  late^  so  we 
went  for  a  walk.  58.  When  shall  their  glory  fade!  59. 
When  the  cats  are  away,  the  mice  will  play.  60.  Why 
should  we  complain?  61.  He  asked  why  we  were  so 
merry.  62.  Thank  her  for  her  kindness.  63.  We  have 
waited  since  eleven.  64.  Since  we  must  remain,  let  us 
make  the  best  of  it.  65.  /F//er^  are  the  reapers?  66.  Go 
where  glory  waits.  67.  The  stag  at  eve  had  drunk  his 
fill.    68.  We  lost  the  way  and  had  to  foot  it  home. 

EXERCISE  121 
Write  the  plural  forms  of  the  following  words. 


ally 

scarf 

piano 

parenthesis 

alley 

staff 

echo 

hypothesis 

volley 

cloth 

solo 

corps 

valley 

wife 

tomato 

tableau 

1 88        DICTIONARY  AND  GRAMMAR 


cry 

self 

alumna 

beau 

lady 

himself 

alumnus 

genus 

folly 

myself 

larva 

radius 

fairy 

gulf 

formula 

Norman 

gypsy 

calf 

focus 

Northman 

reply 

roof 

nebula 

Frenchman 

turkey 

leaf 

phenomenon  German 

pulley 

proof 

stratum 

merchantman 

galley 

motto 

bacterium 

daughter-in-law 

soliloquy 

buffalo 

medium 

bill-of-fare 

journey 

domino 

erratum 

hanger-on 

attorney 

dynamo 

dictum 

handful 

chimney 

cargo 

oasis 

James 

colloquy 

veto 

antithesis 

Henry 

caddy 

hero 

thesis 

Mary 

chief 

portico 

axis 

Dr.  Jones 

dwarf 

zero 

analysis 

Miss  Stone 

loaf 

potato 

crisis 

Mrs.  Grundy 

M] 

r.  Grundy 

Master  Grundy 

6 

m 

+ 

EXERCISE  122 

Write  the  singular  possessive  forms  of  the  fol- 
lowing words. 

Ally,  alley,  fairy,  caddy,  oasis,  daughter-in-law,  Mr. 
Grundy,  I,  you,  he,  she,  it,  who,  Dickens,  Jones,  Wiggs, 
Themistocles,  the  King  of  England,  Dickens  and  Thack- 
eray (joint  possession),  Edward  Clark,  Esq.,  Byron  and 
Scott  (individual  possession),  Addison  or  Steele  (as  in  the 

sentence   This   is   or  ),   Keats,    Holmes, 

Clarke  the  hardware  merchant. 


SENTENCE  ANALYSIS  189 

Write  the  plural  possessive  forms. 

Ally,  alley,  lady,  fairy,  caddy,  hero,  oasis,  corps,  beau, 
calf,  daughter-in-law,  they,  Henry,  Miss  Stone,  Jones, 
Wiggs,  Dickens,  King  of  Sweden. 

Which  of  the  two  forms  enclosed  in  parenthesis 
is  correct? 

I.  Think  of  (me,  my)  asking  such  a  question!  2.  The 
(train,  train's)  being  late  resulted  in  (them,  their)  fail- 
ing to  make  connections.  3.  There  is  some  talk  of  (Mr. 
Taylor's,  Mr.  Taylor)  being  made  president.  4.  What 
sense  is  there  in  a  (boy,  boy's)  losing  his  temper!  5.  I 
never  heard  of  (him,  his)  doing  anything  cowardly. 


EXERCISE  123 

The  sentences  below  illustrate  common  errors 
in  the  use  of  pronouns  and  pronominal  adjectives. 
Correct  the  errors,  in  each  case  telling  why  the  pro- 
noun as  used  is  incorrect, 

I.  The  contrast  between  he  and  Macbeth  is  marked. 
K2.  Whom  do  they  diink  I  am?  3.  Let's  see  who'll  get 
there  first,  you  or  iiie.  4.  If  I  were  him,  I'd  accept  the 
offer.  5.  Every  one  except  she  applauded  the  speaker. 
6.  Yourself  and  your  family  are  invited  to  attend  our 
opening  Friday  evening.  7.  Who  is  you're  friend?  8. 
We  have  been  waiting  this  two  hours.  9.  Who'se  to 
blame?  10.  They  must  look  out  for  theirselves.  11. 
Let  he  who  standeth  take  heed  lest  he  fall.  12.  I  am 
sure  it  was  them.     13.  He  shot  hisself  accidentally.     14. 


190  ENGLISH  COMPOSITION 

i  Who  are  you  going  to  invite?  15.  I  think  it's  wing  is 
broken.  16.  The  weather  will  not  permit  of  me  staying 
out  late.  17.  Please  pass  me  some  of  them  grapes.  18.  I 
know  who  I  like  and  who  I  don't  like  better  than  him. 
19.  He  was  less  clumsy  than  myself.  20.  This  isn't  ourn; 
it  must  be  theirn.  21.  The  three  Clarke  boys  and  myself 
went  in  the  automobile.  22.  It  must  have  been  us  you 
saw.  23.  There  is  no  use  in  me  trying  for  the  prize. 
24.  They  called  upon  a  man  whom  they  thought  would 

L  surely  know  all  about  it.  25.  I  wonder  who  he  means. 
26.  It  lies  between  you  and  I.  27.  Why  should  we  not 
enjoy  what  is  our's?  28.  The  boat  righted  it's  self  in- 
stantly. 29.  He  allowed  my  brother  and  I  to  take  his 
gun.  30.  I  think  you  are  as  tall  as  her.  31.  Here  is  the 
gentleman  who  you  wished  to  see.  32.  Between  you  and 
I,  the  game  was  not  won  fairly.     33.  Do  you  like  these 

^   kind  better?     34.  I  do  not  know  who  to  turn  to.     35. 

V  He  is  the  one  who  I  consider  the  strongest  candidate. 
36.  Us  girls  have  great  larks.  37.  I  thought  you  said 
their  were  good  boats.  Are  these  them?  38.  Neither 
John  nor  Arthur  brought  their  lunch.  39.  No  one 
should  allow  themselves  to  be  deceived.  40.  When  any 
one  is  going  camping,  they  should  take  warm  clothing. 


EXERCISE  124 

The  simplest  rule  in  sentence-building,  and  un- 
questionably the  rule  most  frequently  violated, 
states  that  a  verb  should  agree  with  its  subject  in 
person  and  number.  He  don't,  you  was,  they  was, 
and  /  says  are  expressions  commonly  used  even  by 
those  who  think  that  they  speak  correctly. 


SENTENCE  ANALYSIS  191 

Point  out  the  hare  subject  of  each  of  the  fol- 
lowing sentences.  Point  out  the  bare  predicate. 
Point  out  the  error  in  agreement.  Try  to  give  a 
clear  explanation  of  how,  in  all  probability,  the 
error  came  about.  Was  it  due  to  failure  to  see 
that  the  subject  was  a  collective  noun  or  the  plural 
form  of  a  foreign  term?  Did  the  writer  as- 
sume that  THERE,  coming  immediately  before  the 
verb,  was  a  substantive  in  the  singular  number? 
Did  he  mistake  for  the  subject  some  noun  standing 
nearer  the  verb  than  the  real  subject?  Did  he  for- 
get that  WITH  is  a  preposition,  not  a  conjunction? 

I.  In  back  of  the  grapes  was  two  pineapples.  2.  There 
was  so  many  attending  the  game  that  we  could  not  get  a 
good  seat.  3.  If  each  of  the  boys  are  closely  watched, 
the  trick  will  soon  be  apparent.  4.  First  the  girl's  name 
is  given,  then  follows  her  age  and  birthplace.  5.  This 
house  don't  look  quite  so  old-fashioned  as  the  other.  6. 
Under  these  was  two  basket-balls  and  a  pair  of  boxing- 
gloves.  7.  On  the  north  side  is  a  door  and  two  window^s. 
8.  He  don't  know  any  better  than  to  say  they  aint\  9. 
There  was  but  two  girls  present.  10.  The  phenomena 
was  most  singular.'  11.  The  papers  tell  where  and  when 
there  is  to  be  bargain  sales.  12.  Two  of  us  remained  at 
home,  so  there  was  but  two  to  go  in  the  boat.  13.  The 
father  with  his  three  sons  were  saved.  14.  Every  one  of 
the  articles  were  sold.     15.  There's  no  two  ways  about  it! 

16.  Tales  of  a  Wayside  Inn  were  written  by  Longfellow. 

17.  Fifteen  minutes  were  soon  gone.  18.  No  one  but 
Edward  and  George  were  absent.  19.  It  happened  when 
you  was  away.     20.  More  than  one  has  made  the  same 


192 


DICTIONARY  AND  GRAMMAR 


mistake.  21.  Quickness  as  well  as  strength  are  needed. 
22.  A  hundred  feet  of  hose  were  rapidly  paid  out.  23. 
To  the  captain  and  the  manager  of  the  team  are  due 
most  of  the  credit.  24.  We  was  having  the  time  of 
our  lives.  25.  Honesty,  as  well  as  cleverness,  count.  26. 
Two-thirds  of  the  roof  were  shingled  before  the  rain  fell. 
27.  My  favorite  study  are  mathematics.  28.  The  bind- 
ing of  the  books  were  insecure.  29.  Home,  with  all  its 
many  comforts,  were  soon  forgotten.  30.  I  says 
"walk";  he  says  "ride".  31.  On  the  platform  even 
with  the  sill  is  three  cages.  32.  Thirty  thousand  dollars 
were  paid  for  the  mansion.  33.  Each  of  the  sticks  were 
given  a  coat  of  walnut  stain.  34.  Was  you  surprised  to 
see  your  mother?  35.  Which  of  the  two  boys  were  John? 
36.  It  will  clear  before  eleven;  you  see  if  it  don't. 


EXERCISE  125 

Learn  the  following  table  so  thoroughly  that  if 
a  principal  part  of  any  verb  be  given  you  can  with- 
out hesitation  supply  the  remaining  parts.  Words 
starred  are  of  the  new  or  weak  conjugation. 


arise 

arose 

arisen 

bring* 

brought 

brought 

awake 

awoke 

awaked 

burst 

burst 

burst 

bear 

bore  or 

born  or 

choose 

chose 

chosen 

bare 

borne 

cling 

clung 

clung 

beat 

beat 

beaten 

come 

came 

come 

begin 

began 

begun 

cost* 

cost 

cost 

bend* 

bent 

bent 

do 

did 

done 

bid 

bade  or 

bidden 

draw 

drew 

draw^n 

bid 

drink 

drank 

drunk 

bite 

bit 

bitten 

drive 

drove 

driven 

break 

broke 

broken 

drown  * 

drowned 

drowned 

SENTENCE  ANALYSIS 


193 


eat 

ate<?reat 

:  eaten 

rid* 

rid 

rid 

fight 

fought 

fought 

run 

ran 

run 

flee* 

fled 

fled 

see 

saw 

seen 

fling 

flung 

flung 

set* 

set 

set 

flow* 

flowed 

flowed 

shrink  * 

shrank 

shrunk 

fly 

flew 

flown 

sing 

sang 

sung 

forbid 

forbade 

forbidden 

sit 

sat 

sat 

forget 

forgot 

forgotten 

sla}'- 

slew 

slain 

freeze 

froze 

frozen 

sling 

slung 

slung 

give 

gave 

given 

speak 

spoke 

spoken 

go 

went 

gone 

spring 

sprang 

sprung 

grow 

grew 

grown 

steal 

stole 

stolen 

hear* 

heard 

heard 

string 

strung 

strung 

hit* 

hit 

hit 

swear 

swore 

sworn 

hurt* 

hurt 

hurt 

swim 

swam 

swum 

knit* 

knit 

knit 

tear 

tore 

torn 

lay* 

laid 

laid 

think  * 

thought 

thought 

lead* 

led 

led 

throw 

threw 

thrown 

leap* 

leapt 

leapt 

wake  * 

waked 

waked 

let* 

let 

let 

or  woke 

lie 

lay 

lain 

wear 

wore 

worn 

lie* 

lied 

lied 

wet* 

wet 

wet 

loose  * 

loosed 

loosed 

wring 

wrung 

wrung 

lose  * 

lost 

lost 

write 

wrote 

written 

put* 

put 

put 

EXERCISE  126 

Notice  that  there  are  no  such  forms  as  brung, 

BUSTED,    COSTED,    DROWNDED,    GROWED,    HITTED, 
HURTED,  RUNNED,   SWORED,   SWIMMED,  WORED. 

Write  sentences  in  which  the  past  tense  and  past 
participle  forms  of  the  following  verbs  are  used. 


bring 
bursf 


cost 
drown 


grow 
hit 


hurt 
run 


wear 


swim 


swear 


194        DICTIONARY  AND  GRAMMAR 

EXERCISE  127 
Give  the  following  forms. 

Active  and  passive  past  perfect  of  beat. 

Active  past,  simple  and  progressive  forms,  of  hurt. 

Passive  past  progressive  of  bite. 

All  the  infinitives  and  participles  of  bring;  the  active 
past  of  come,  eat,  and  fling. 

Passive  past  progressive  of  hear. 

Active  past  progressive  of  lie  (to  recline). 

Active  potential  past  of  see. 

Active  present  and  past  subjunctive  of  sing. 

Participles  of  swim. 

Active  present  progressive  of  slay. 

Passive  present  progressive  of  slay. 

Active  simple  future  of  write. 

Synopsis  (all  first  person  forms  in  all  moods  and  tenses, 
all  imperative,  infinitive,  and  participial  forms)   of  love. 

Conjugate  work  in  the  active  progressive.  Conjugate 
in  full  the  verb  HELP. 


EXERCISE  128 

Insert  verbs  as  indicated,  using  active  forms  un- 
less otherwise  directed. 

I.  He  said  that  they  (past  perfect  of  awake).  2.  Try 
my  remedy.  It  can't  be  (past  participle  of  beat).  3. 
We  (past  of  begin)  where  they  (past  perfect  of  begin). 
4.  If  you  (pastperfect  passive  of  bite)  by  the  dog,  you 
would  not  like  it.     5.  He  (past  of  bid)  James  do  as  he 


SENTENCE  ANALYSIS  195 

(past  perfect  passive  of  bid),  6.  Did  you  say  that  his  arm 
(past  passive  of  break)  ?  7.  I  wish  you  (past  perfect  of 
bring)  him  along  too.  8.  I  might  have  gone  had  I  (past 
participle  of  choose).  9.  He  (past  of  cling)  to  it  that 
he  was  right.  10.  He  (past  of  do)  it.  I  saw  him  when 
he  (past  of  Jo)  it.  11.  Did  you  say  that  he  (past  of 
drink)  after  all  the  rest  (past  perfect  of  drink)  ?  12.  The 
servant  (past  of  eat)  after  the  others  (past  perfect  of  eat). 

13.  Up  he   (past  of  fling)  his  cap  and  shouted  for  joy. 

14.  The  bird  flew  in  the  same  direction  that  the  river 
(past  of  flow).  15.  After  all  the  others  (past  perfect  of 
fly),  the  old  crow  (past  of  fly)  too.  16.  He  (past 
of  forbid)  loud  talking  in  the  corridor.  17.  The  boy 
(past  perfect  of  forget)  all  about  it.  18.  My  fingers 
(present  passive  of  freeze).  19.  I  wonder  if  the  pond 
(present  passive  of  freeze)  solid.  20.  It  happened 
after  they  (past  perfect  of  go)  for  help.  21.  He  (past 
of  lay)  the  apple  on  the  plate,  and  there  it  still  lies. 
22.  The  log  has  lain  for  years  just  where  it  (past  passive 
of  lay).  23.  They  (past  of  lead)  the  way.  24.  We 
(past  of  lie)  for  hours  where  you  (past  perfect  of  lie). 
25.  He  (past  of  lay)  the  mattress  on  the  ground  and 
there  we  (past  of  lie).  26.  If  you  take  the  dog,  I  fear 
you  (future  of  lose)  him.  27.  It  Is  easy  (Infinitive  of 
lose)  the  way.  28.  By  that  time  the  boy  (past  perfect  of 
run)  away.  29.  He  (past  of  see)  us  when  we  (past  of 
do)  It.  30.  As  he  (past  of  sit)  down  he  (past  of  set) 
his  hat  on  the  table.  31.  If  you  (past  perfect  of  set)  the 
vase  on  the  shelf,  It  would  not  have  fallen.  32.  The  dog 
(past  perfect  of  shake)  the  life  out  of  the  rat.  33.  We 
(past  of  shrink)  from  the  undertaking  just  as  you  (past 
of  shrink)  from  It.  34.  He  said  the  garment  (past  per- 
fect  of   shrink).     35.  He    (past    of   sit)    down    in    the 


196        DICTIONARY  AND  GRAMMAR 

chair  that  (past  of  set)  In  the  corner.  36.  His  books 
(past  passive  of  sling)  over  his  shoulder.  37.  Not  till 
he  (past  perfect  of  speak)  did  he  consider  it  useless  to  try. 
38.  He  knew  that  the  steel  bar  (past  perfect  passive  of 
steal).  39.  I  thought  he  (past  perfect  of  swear)  that  it 
was  true.  40.  After  he  (past  perfect  of  swim)  the  river, 
he  found  himself  exhausted.  41.  If  he  (past  perfect  of 
throw)  the  ball  to  first,  the  run  would  not  have  counted. 
42.  You  (past  of  wake)  John,  but  Henry  (past  of 
awake)  of  his  own  accord.  43.  I  wish  I  (past  perfect  of 
wear)  a  heavier  coat.  44.  She  (past  progressive  of 
wring)  the  clothes  when  the  bell  (past  of  ring).  45. 
You  may  read  what  you  (perfect  of  write). 


EXERCISE  129 

Which  of  the  verbs  found  in  Exercise  12^  are 
always  used  transitively?  intransitively?  Which 
may  be  used  either  way? 


EXERCISE  130 

Lie,  sit,  and  awake  are  intransitive ;  lay,  set,  and 
wake  are  transitive.  Rivers  flow;  birds  fly.  We 
ring  the  bell ;  we  ivring  wet  clothes.  We  lose,  not 
loose,  our  gloves. 

Supply  the  correct  forms  in  the  following  sen- 
tences, using  forms  of  AWAKE  and  wake  in  the 
first  group,  FLOW  and  FLY  in  the  second  group, 
and  so  on. 


SENTENCE  ANALYSIS  197 

1.  I  at  six.     When  did  you  ?     Did 

you  of  your  own  accord,  or  did  you  have  some 

one  you?     Had  he  when  you  knocked? 

Who the  others,  yesterday  morning?     Please  see 

if  father  has  ;  if  he  has  not,  please  him. 

Emily  too. 

2.  Where  did  the  river  formerly ?     How  long 

has  it in  its  present  channel?    If  we  say  that  the 

brook  fairly  flew  by  the  door,  do  we  mean  simply  that 

it by  the  door  ?    Will  the  water  that  has 

by  the  mill  never  return?     John  carelessly  said  that  the 

river  over  its  banks  last  spring.     Of  course  he 

meant  that  it its  banks  last  spring. 

3.  I  think  I  will  down  for  a  few  minutes. 

Please the  blankets  out  in  the  orchard  where  you 

them  yesterday.    How  often  have  I there 

this  summer !     Where  is  my  book  ?     I  must  have  mis 

it.     Perhaps   it  on   the   library   table.     I    think 

you  will  find  it  there.     If  any  one  should  call, 

do   not   say   that   I   am  not   at   home;    for   that   would 
be . 

4.  I    am    always   things.     This   is   the   third 

thimble   I   have   lost  within   a  year.     How   much   time 

one while  hunting  for  lost  things!     Do  you  ever 

things?    things  is  one  of  my  worst  fail- 
ings.    By  the  way,  isn't  this  nut  a  little ?    Please 

get  a  wrench  and  tighten  it.     But  do  not  get  it  too  tight ; 
it  should  be  a  little . 

5.  the  bell  would  mean  twisting  it; the 

hands  would  mean  making  them  give  forth  the  sound  of 

a  bell.    Was  not  John wet  when  they  pulled  him 

out  of  the  stream!     His  cries  for  help  have  been 

in  my  ears  all  day.     How  it  did  his  mother's 


H 


198        DICTIONARY  AND  GRAMMAR 

heart  to  see  him  struggh'ng  in  the  water!     Well,  get  his 

^^CK    clothes  and  we  will  run  them  through  the . 

)      j        6.  jle  has  set  his  heart  on  getting  the  prize,  and  has 

up  night  after  night  to  study.     Do down 

and  let  me  tell  you  about  it.     your  hat  on  the 

^    table.     You  wish  a  fan?     still  and  let  me  get 

one.     I  ought  not  to  be  here  using  one  myself 

without  offering  you  one  too.     Will  you  excuse  me  a 

minute?    Just  before  you  came  into  the  room, 

I  something  on  the  stove.     I'm  afraid  there  will 

be  trouble  if  It there  much  longer.    What  a  hard 

cold  you  have!     I  mistrust  you  caught  It  by  on 

the    grass   yesterday   while   John   was   out   the 

shrubs. 

I.  The  tree  has there  many  years.     2.  Let  the 

book where  it  is.    3.  Jjhink  I  have here 

long  enough.     4.  We  at  anchor  till  the  storm 

blew    over.     5.  In    which     direction     does    our    camp 

?     6.  The  grounds  were  beautifully out. 

7.  When    the   culprits   were    caught,    they   the 

blame  on  others.     8.  Speckle  has  an  egg  In  the 

box   that  by   the   stable   door.     9.  J_tbink   the 

town  now to  the  east.     10.  Will  you  not 

down?     II.  He  said  that  he  would  down  for  a 

while;   so   we  his   blankets   in   the   shade.     12. 

His    only    fault,    he    said,    In    the    one    word 

ambition.        13.  Where    the    tree    falleth,    there    must 

it . 

I.  He  was in  the room.     2.  We  had 

up  most  of  the  night.     3.  After  the  sun   had 

,  the  air  grew  chilly.     4.  Please  down  a 


minute.     5.  After  we  had there  a  long  time,  the 

door  opened.     6.  The  house,   he   said,   back   a 


SENTENCE  ANALYSIS  199 

little  from  the  street.     7.  Old  wives  a-sunning  . 

8.  The  little  bird at  his  door  in  the  sun. 


EXERCISE  131 

Complete  the  following  sentences  by  inserting 
WAS  and  WERE  where  needed,  in  each  case  giving  a 
reason  for  your  choice.  Remember  that  the  indic- 
ative is  used  to  denote  simple  condition  in  past 
time,  the  subjunctive  were  to  denote  a  mere  sup- 
position or  to  present  a  state  of  affairs  contrary  to 
fact. 

I.  We  looked  to  see  if  it still  raining.     2.  If 

he  coming,   he  would  be   here  now.     3.  If  he 

tardy,  he  should  bring  an  excuse.     4.  If  I 

you,  I  should  start  at  once.     5.  Would  that  it  

true!     6.  If  he  asked,   he  would  come.     7.  If 

he asked,  I  knew  nothing  of  it.     8.  I  wish  that 

I  with  you.     9.  If  he strong,  we  should 

take  him  with  us.     10.  If  it  true  then,  it  must 

be  true  now.     11.  He  would  seem  stern  it  not 

for  a  twinkle  in  his  eye.     12.  If  it he,  I  failed  to 

recognize  him.     13.  Suppose  you  asked   to   go; 

what  should  you  say?     14.  We  used  the  cottage  as  freely 

as  if  it  our  own.     15.  Why,  man,  if  the  river 

dry,  I  am  able  to  fill  it  with  my  tears;  if  the 

wind down,  I  could  drive  the  boat  with  my  sighs. 

16.  Love  Virtue;  she  alone  is  free. 

She  can  teach  you  how  to  climb 

Higher  than  the  sphery  chime; 

Or,  if  Virtue  feeble , 


Heaven  itself  would  stoop  to  her. — Milton 


200        DICTIONARY  AND  GRAMMAR 

EXERCISE  132 

Supply  SHALL  or  will,  whichever  is  correct,  in 
each  of  the  following  sentences. 

I.  I  hope  to  see  you  often.     2.  I  am  deter- 
mined that  he  have  a  pleasant  time.     3.  If  you 

call  at  eight,  you  find  me  at  home.     4. 

I  be   greatly  obliged   if  you  bring  the 

books  with  you.     5.  We  know  that  we  have  to 

work  hard,  but  we  think  it do  us  no  harm.     6. 

John  is  determined   that  he  be  first.     7.  John 

tells  me  that  he  be  able  to  join  the  party.*     8. 

He  writes  that  he  be  sixteen  to-morrow.     9.  If 

you  go,  I want  to  go  too.     10.  I  think  we 

be  asked   to   remain.     11.  The  weather   forecaster  says 

that  we have  a  fair  day  to-morrow.     12.  I  think 

we see  land  before  night.     13.  you  be 

able   to   accompany   us?     14.  When   we    reach 

Dallas?     15.  we  have  time  to  purchase  tickets? 

16.  What I  do  if  it  rains?     17.  you  be 

sorry  to  see  the  snow  come?     18.  How  I  know 

where    to    go?     19.  we   be    permitted    to    take 

books   home?     20.  there  be  a  bonfire,   do  you 

think?     21.  they  know  which  road  to  take? 


EXERCISE  133 

Show  very  clearly  that  the  meaning  of  each  of 
the  following  sentences  changes  according  as 
SHALL  or  WILL  is  supplied. 

*  Where  shall  would  be  used  in  direct  discourse,  use  shall  in  indirect  dis- 
course ;  where  wilt  would  be  used,  use  will  in  the  indirect. 


SENTENCE  ANALYSIS                  201 
you   attend   the  concert?     2.  We  


not  disappoint  you.     3.  There  be  no  laughter. 

4.  they  wait  for  us?     5.  He  read   the 

book.     6.  he   provide   lunch?     7.  I   be 

king.     8.  I  drown,  if  you  do  not  help  me.     9. 

He  drown,  if  you  do  not  help  him.     10.  You 

drown,   if  no  one  helps  you.     11.  We  

reach  New  York  before  eight.     12.  I  contribute 

ten  dollars.     13.  you  try  for  honors?     14.  He 

reports  that  the  train  wait  for  us. 


EXERCISE  134 

Supply   SHOULD  and  would  where  the  sense 
requires  in  the  following  sentences. 

I.  I like  to  help  you,  and  I if  I  could. 

2.  I  hoped  that  I  not  be  asked.     3.  I  know  I 

enjoy  golf,  but  I  think  I  prefer  tennis. 

4.  I  be  afraid  to  ride  such  a  spirited  ^horse.     5. 

If  you  will  permit  me,  I  like  to  add  a  word.     6. 

If  you  rescued  the  crew,  you  be  rewarded.     7. 

He  said  that  I  go  if  there  was  room.     8.  He 

asked  if  I take  him  too.    9.  I be  sorry  to 

see  him  fail.     10.  I send  him  aid  if  I  thought  he 

would  accept  it.     11.  What we  do  with  a  white 

elephant  if  we  had  one?     12.  I  thought  I  fail. 

13.  If  you  speak  to  him,  he  give  you  a 

courteous   answer.     14.  Had    I   been   in   his   position,    I 

have  done  the  same.     15.  We  planned  that  he 

go  by  train.     16.  If  you be  in  town,  we 

be  pleased  to  have  you  call.     17.  He  promised 

that   the   next   lesson   be   better  prepared.     18. 


202        DICTIONARY  AND  GRAMMAR 

He  thought  that  he find  it.     19.  We  returned  it 

lest  he think  it  had  been  stolen.    20.  He  thought 

he be  forced  to  tell  the  secret,  in  spite  of  all  he 

could   do.     21.  Had  we   delayed   a  moment  longer,  we 

have  lost  everything.    22.  I like  to  know 

who    that   man    is.     23.  I    thought    I   not   like 

rowing,  but  I  do  like  it.     24.  I  was  afraid  I  be 

late.     25.  Even  if  I  missed  the  train,  I  be  able 

to  walk  home.     26.  If  it  were  to  offend  him,  I  

never  forgive  myself.     27.  What  we  do  if  the 

water  supply  were  to  fail?     28.  We be  delighted 

to  have  you  come.     29.  If  you  fail,  how  sorry  I 

be.     30.  I  prefer  to  have  you  go  in  my 

place.     31.  Had  we  started  a  minute  sooner,  we 

have  caught  it.     32.  Were  I  to  fail,  I  —  be  dis- 
couraged.    33.  He  said  we  do   as  we   pleased. 

34.  I  think  you  would  try  again.     35.  At  this 

point  we  like  to  ask  a  question.     36.  I  said  that 

I   be   sixteen   to-morrow.      37.  You  be 

surprised  to  see  how  he  has  grown.     38.  If  you  were  to 

come  after  six,  you find  me  at  home.     39.  If  we 

were  to  start  now,  do  you  think  we  be  in  time? 

40.  If  it  rain,  we  feel  like  going?     41. 

She  was  sure  every  minute  that  she be  thrown  ofiE 

and  hurt.     42.  I as  lief  do  one  thing  as  the  other. 

43.  Where I  go?    44.    If  you call  me  by 

my  real  name,  you oblige  me. 


EXERCISE  135 

Show  clearly  that  each  sentence  changes  in  mean- 
ing according  as  may  or  can  is  supplied. 


SENTENCE  ANALYSIS  203 

I.    I  help  you?     2. we  tell  all  that  we 

know?     3.   we  not   find   our  way  back  to   the 

boat?     4.  He  says  you  go.     5.  we  have 

the  pleasure  of  your  company?     6.  What  more  

be  done?     7.  This not  be  done;  it  is  against  the 

rules. 

8.  Now  my  task  is  lightly  done, 
I fly  and  I run. 


EXERCISE  136 

Tell  very  clearly  why  each  of  the  following  sen- 
tences is  incorrect. 

I.  He  thinks  he  must  of  left  it  in  the  train.  2.  This 
was  the  first  time  I  was  ever  elected  to  office.  3.  I 
should  be  pleased  if  he  will'  call  at  my  homeA  4-  Do 
you  know  when  he  come  to  town?  5.  We  done  the  best 
we  could.  6.  They,  thinking  him  to  have  been  with 
the  others,  did  not  worry  about  his  absence,  7.  You 
had  ought  to  have  seen  us!.,  8.  It  ^s  enough  tohj^ 
discouraged  any  one.  9.  I  intended  to  haVe  written 
long  ago..  10.  If  I  permit  you  to  go,  I  shoum  nave  to 
ask  you  to  return  before  nine.  11.  I  am  not  sure  where 
they  went,  but  I  think  they  may  have  we^*shopping. 
12.  They  must  have  forgot- all  about  it.  13.  When  the 
storm  broke,  we  all  ^ri- for  shelter.  14.  Probably  they 
"would  have  drove  on  for  another  hour,  had  not  darkness 
overtaken  them.'    15.  Don't  it  look  dark! 


204        DICTIONARY  AND  GRAMMAR 


EXERCISE  137 

Point  out  the  connectives  and  tell  what  part  of 
speech  each  connective  is.  Which  ones  do  double 
duty,  serving  not  only  as  connectives  but  as  mod- 
ifiers or  substantives?  Which  of  the  conjunctions 
are  coordinate  and  which  are  subordinate? 

I.  He  who  hesitates  is  lost.  2.  We  sailed  above  the 
clouds.  3.  Time  and  tide  wait  for  no  man.  4.  Neither 
this  nor  that  is  precisely  what  I  wish;  but  I  will  take  a 
little  of  each  unless  you  can  show  me  something  else. 
5.  Notwithstanding  the  weight  of  the  anchor,  the'  yacht 
continued  to  drift.  6.  Let  him  who  standeth  take  heed 
lest  he  fall.  7.  Underneath  his  faults  were  virtues  little 
dreamed  of.  8.  Let  us  accept  whatever  comes  and  be 
of  good  cheer.  9.  Although  we  have  failed  twice,  a 
third  time  we  may  succeed.  10.  Before  breakfast,  take 
a  brisk  walk  through  the  fields.  11.  The  paths  of  glory 
lead  but  to  the  grave.  12.  I  go  where  the  winds  take 
me.  13.  Do  you  know  why  the  harebell  hangs  its  head? 
14.  We  do  not  know  whether  to  go  or  to  remain;  but 
since  it  matters  little  which  we  do,  we  will  decide  the 
matter  by  lot.  15.  If  thou  faint  in  the  day  of  adversity, 
thy  strength  is  small.  16.  Can  you  imagine  what  has 
happened  that  the  train  is  so  late?  17.  Though  he  fall, 
he  shall  not  be  utterly  cast  down.  18.  I  do  not  see  how 
we  could  have  missed  our  way.  19.  Between  the  hills 
lay  a  peaceful  valley  through  which  ran  a  sober  little 
stream.  20.  The  undertaking  is  hazardous;  still  all 
may  go  well,  provided  we  are  careful.  21.  Notwith- 
standing all  that  has  been  said,   the  prisoner  is  blame- 


SENTENCE  ANALYSIS  205 

less.  22.  Throughout  the  night  came  cries  of  distress 
from  many  quarters.  23.  All  except  honor  is  lost.  24. 
Therefore,  since  the  whole  is  equal  to  the  sum  of  all  its 
parts,  the  angle  A  equals  the  angle  B.  25.  Wait  till  you 
have  heard  both  sides. 


EXERCISE  138 

Point  out  the  errors  in  the  following  sentences, 

I.  We  had  neither  food  or  shelter.  2.  I  got  this  book 
off  of  James.  3.  The  reason  we  did  this  was  because 
we  knew  no  better.  4.  I  am  not  sure  but  what  we  had 
better  go  now.  5.  We  arrived  at  about  six  in  the  even- 
ing. 6.  He  says  he  don't  want  no  dinner.  7.  We  have 
no  money  nor  no  means  of  procuring  it.  8.  He  looks 
like  he  was  lame.  9.  How  nicely  this  tastes!  10.  He 
has  an  italian  accent.  11.  Can  you  not  make  it  a  little 
rounder  at  the  top  and  squarer  at  the  base?  And  make 
this  edge  a  little  straighter.  12.  It  will  not  rain  before 
noon,  I  don't  think.  13.  We  reached  shore  easy  enough. 
14.  He  returned  in  a  very  different  spirit  than  he  once 
had.  15.  Would  he  not  comply  to  your  wishes?  16. 
No  sooner  had  she  said  this  when  she  began  to  cry.  17. 
Strike  out  boldly  like  me!  18.  This  is  very  different 
than  what  we  expected.  19.  It  was  not  as  bad  as  we 
expected.  20.  Like  as  not  we'll  meet  them.  21.  This 
is  very  pretty,  but  I  think  the  other  more  preferable. 
22.  Any  one  would  have  done  the  same  had  he  been 
frightened  like  John  was.  23.  As  quick  as  the  twigs 
kindle,  put  on  the  heavier  wood.  24.  Now  pour  enough 
water  in  the  pan  to  cover  the  dishes.  25.  These  kind  are 
hard    to   catch.     26.  A   dollar   doesn't   last   long   when 


2o6        DICTIONARY  AND  GRAMMAR 

divided  between  six  hungry  boys.  27.  I  don't  know  as 
I  can  say  much  more,  gentlemen.  28.  I  shall  be  unable 
to  go  without  I  get  my  lessons  first.  29.  By  eight  we 
were  near  starved.  30.  Scarcely  had  we  fallen  asleep 
than  the  fire-bell  began  to  ring. 


EXERCISE  139 

Analyzing  a  sentence  means  taking  It  to  pieces 
and  explaining  how  Its  parts  are  related.  First 
we  should  tell  whether  the  sentence  Is  simple,  com- 
pound, or  complex.  If  It  Is  compound,  the  clauses 
should  be  pointed  out  and  the  word  or  words  con- 
necting them;  if  complex,  the  principal  clause 
should  be  pointed  out  first,  then  the  subordinate 
members.  Next  we  should  analyze  each  clause, 
pointing  out  subject  and  predicate  and  the  modi- 
fiers of  each. 

Analyze  the  sentences  in  Exercises  116,  117,  118, 
119,  and  137. 


EXERCISE  140 

Parsing  a  word  means  telling  ( i )  what  part  of 
speech  It  Is,  (2)  what  Inflected  form  It  represents, 
(3)  how  It  Is  used,  (4)  what  rule  It  obeys.  The 
things  to  be  told  of  the  different  parts  of  speech 
are  as  follows. 

Noun:  Kind  (common  or  proper),  number,  gen- 
der, case,  how  used,  rule. 


SENTENCE  ANALYSIS  207 

Pronoun:  Kind  (personal,  relative,  demonstra- 
tive, interrogative,  or  indefinite),  antecedent  if  the 
pronoun  is  a  relative,  gender  if  it  is  a  personal  pro- 
noun, person  if  it  is  a  personal  or  relative  pronoun, 
number,  case,  how  used,  rule. 

Adjective:  Kind  (article,  numeral,  pronominal; 
common  or  proper),  degree  if  the  adjective  can  be 
compared,  how  used. 

Verb:  Kind  (transitive  or  intransitive),  conju- 
gation (old  or  new),  principal  parts,  voice,  mode, 
tense,  person,  number,  rule. 

Adverb:  Kind  (simple,  conjunctive,  expletive,  re- 
sponsive), degree  if  the  adverb  can  be  compared, 
how  used. 

Preposition :  The  word  it  governs,  the  words  be- 
tween which  it  shows  relation. 

Conjunction:  Kind  (coordinate  or  subordinate)  ; 
the  words,  phrases,  or  clauses  it  connects. 

Interjection:  Definition. 

Infinitive  or  Participle :  To  what  verb  it  belongs, 
voice,  tense,  how  used. 

Parse  each  word  found  in  Exercises  116,  117, 
118,  119,  and  137. 


EXERCISE  141 

Analyze  the  following  sentences  and  parse  each 
word. 

I.  Geography  explains  history.     2.  Death  lays  his  icy 
hands  on  kings.     3.  Unto  the  pure  all  things  are  pure. 


2o8        DICTIONARY  AND  GRAMMAR 

4.  And  when  his  armour-bearer  saw  that  Saul  was  dead, 
he  fell  likewise  on  the  sword  and  died.  5.  Heaven  lies 
about  us  in  our  infancy.  6.  A  man  without  a  sense  of 
humor,  some  one  has  said,  is  occasionally  to  be  respected, 
often  to  be  feared,  and  nearly  always  to  be  avoided.  7. 
Facts  in  the  mind,  says  Sir  Oliver  Lodge,  are  not  dead 
things  in  a  portmanteau;  they  are  live  things  in  a  pond. 
8.  Truth  makes  all  things  plain.  9.  Patience  is  bitter 
but  its  fruit  is  sweet.  10.  A  good  name  is  better  than 
a  girdle  of  gold.  11.  Labor  rids  us  of  three  great  evils: 
tediousness,  vice,  and  poverty.  12.  In  vain  do  you  lead 
the  ox  to  the  water,  if  he  is  not  thirsty.  13.  Many  gen- 
erations have  come  and  gone  since  the  little  Mayflower 
lay  rocking  in  yonder  bay,  with  the  Pilgrim  mothers  and 
sisters  looking  out  wistfully  over  the  then  lonely  waters, 
and  the  children,  cooped  up  for  many  a  weary  week,  ask- 
ing when  at  last  they  should  be  put  on  shore.  14.  A 
wise  man  thinks  before  he  speaks;  but  a  fool  speaks  and 
then  thinks  of  what  he  has  been  saying.  15.  Disputes 
would  not  continue  so  long,  if  the  wrong  lay  but  on  one 
side.  16.  It  avails  little  to  know  what  ought  to  be  done, 
if  you  do  not  know  how  it  is  to  be  done.  17.  The  most 
original  modern  authors,  says  Goethe,  are  not  so  because 
they  advance  what  is  new,  but  simply  because  they  know 
how  to  put  what  they  have  to  say  as  if  it  had  never 
been  said  before.  18.  As  soon  as  the  house  was  full  and 
the  candles  lighted,  my  old  friend  stood  up  and  looked 
about  him  with  that  pleasure  which  a  mind  seasoned 
with  humanity  naturally  feels  in  itself  at  the  sight  of  a 
multitude  of  people  who  seem  pleased  with  one  another 
and  partake  of  the  same  common  enjoyment.,  19.  We 
remain  shackled  by  timidity  till  we  have  learned  to  speak 
with  propriety.     20.  The  earth  opens  her  bosom  to  re- 


SENTENCE  ANALYSIS  '     209 

ceive  impartially  the  beggar  and  the  prince.  21.  I  know 
not  what  course  others  may  take ;  but  as  for  me,  give  me 
liberty  or  give  me  death!  22.  The  planter,  who  is  man 
sent  out  into  the  field  to  gather  food,  is  seldom  cheered 
by  any  idea  of  the  true  dignity  of  his  ministry.  He  sees 
his  bushel  and  his  cart  and  nothing  beyond,  and  sinks 
into  the  farmer  instead  of  the  man  on  the  farm.  23.  It 
is  a  pleasing  sight,  of  a  Sunday  morning,  when  the  bell 
is  sending  its  sober  melody  across  the  quiet  fields,  to 
behold  the  peasantry  in  their  best  finery,  with  ruddy  faces 
and  modest  cheerfulness,  thronging  tranquilly  along  the 
green  lanes  to  church;  but  it  is  still  more  pleasing  to  see 
them  in  the  evenings,  gathered  about  their  cottage  doors 
and  appearing  to  exult  in  the  humble  comforts  and  em- 
bellishments which  their  own  hands  have  spread  around 
them.  24.  After  these  words,  the  dragon,  awful  mon- 
ster, flashing  with  blazing  flames,  came  on  all  wroth  a 
second  time  to  meet  his  hated  foeman. 

EXERCISE  142 

Analyze  each  sentence  in  A  Preliminary  Word 
to  the  Pupil  on  page  xi. 

EXERCISE  143 

Analyze  the  following  sentences  and  parse  each 
word. 

I.  The  moon  was  afloat 

Like  a  golden  boat 
On  the  sea-blue  depths  of  the  sky 
When  the  miller  of  Dee 
With  his  children   three 
On  his  fat,  red  horse  rode  by. 


210        DICTIONARY  AND  GRAMMAR 

2.  Who  lacks  the  art  to  shape  his  thought,  I  hold, 
Were  little  poorer  if  he  lacked  the  thought. 

—Aldrich 

3.  The  evil  that  men  do  lives  after  them; 
The  good  is  oft  interred  with  their  bones. 

— Shakespeare 

4.  Errors,  like  straws,  upon  the  surface  flow; 

He  who  would  search  for  pearls  must  dive  below. 

— Dry  den 

5.  The  stars  look  very  cold  about  the  sky. 

And  I  have  many  miles  on  foot  to  fare. — Keats 

6.  I  read  whatever  bards  have  sung 

Of  lands  beyond  the  sea; 
And  the  bright  days  when  I  was  young 

Come  thronging  back  to  me. — Longfellow 

7.  In  Xanadu  did  Kubla  Khan 

A  stately  pleasure-dome  decree 
Where  Alph,  the  sacred  river,  ran 
Through  caverns  measureless  to  man 
Down  to  a  sunless  sea. — Coleridge 

8.  In  the  moonlight  the  shepherds. 

Soft  lulled  by  the  rills. 
Lie  wrapt  in  their  blankets, 
Asleep  on  the  hills. — Arnold 

9.  Yonder  in  the  heather  there's  a  bed  for  sleeping. 
Drink  for  one  athirst,  ripe  blackberries  to  eat; 
Yonder  in  the  sun  the  merry  hares  go  leaping, 
And  the  pool  is  clear  for  travel-weary  feet. 

— Ada  Smith 


SENTENCE  ANALYSIS  211 

10.  The    hare   limped    trembling    through    the    frozen 

grass  ; 
And  silent  was  the  flock  in  woolly  fold; 
Numb  were  the  Beadsman's  fingers  while  he  told 
His  rosary,  and  while  his  frosted  breath, 
Like  pious  incense  from  a  censer  old, 
Seemed  taking  flight  for  heaven,  without  a  death, 
Past  the  sweet  Virgin's  picture,  while  his  prayer 

he  saith. — Keats 

11.  While  you  converse  with  lords  and  dukes, 
I  have  their  betters  here — my  books; 
Fixed  in  an  elbow-chair  at  ease, 

I  choose  companions  as  I  please. 

I'd  rather  have  one  single  shelf 

Than  ail  my  friends,  except  yourself; 

For,  after  all  that  can  be  said. 

Our  best  acquaintances  are  the  dead. — Sheridan 


PART  III 
RHETORIC  IN  PRACTICE 


CHAPTER  XVI 

SUBSTITUTION  AND  COMBINATION 

It  matters  little  whether  we  write  He  lives  in 
the  house  which  stands  on  the  corner,  He  lives  in 
the  house  on  the  corner,  or  He  lives  in  the  corner 
house.  The  three  statements  are  nearly  identical 
in  meaning.  Yet  in  the  first  the  word  house  is  mod- 
ified by  a  clause  of  five  words,  in  the  second  by  a 
phrase  of  three  words,  in  the  third  by  a  single 
word.  The  skilled  writer  knows  how  to  gain  force 
by  making  his  statements  brief  and  concise,  how 
to  gain  clearness  by  spreading  out  a  sentence,  how 
to  avoid  an  unpleasant  combination  of  sounds  or 
escape  monotony  of  structure  by  shifting  from 
clause  to  phrase,  from  phrase  to  adjective  or  ad- 
verb or  noun.  He  knows  when  to  combine  several 
statements  Into  a  single  sentence;  when  to  cut  up 
a  long,  intricate  sentence  into  a  number  of  short, 
simple  ones.  This  he  has  learned  through  prac- 
tice, just  as  you  may  learn  it.  But  it  is  not  an 
easy  matter.  Even  after  years  of  training  the  care- 
ful writer  finds  that  he  must  spend  no  little  energy, 
when  revising  his  work,  in  changing  sentences  this 
way  and  that  to  make  them  clear,  forceful,  har- 
monious. 

215 


2i6  RHETORIC  IN  PRACTICE 


EXERCISE  144 

In  the  first  group  of  sentences  below,  substitute 
single  words  for  phrases;  in  the  second  group,  sub- 
stitute phrases  for  single  words;  in  the  third  group, 
substitute  simpler  expressions — words  or  phrases — 
for  clauses.  Try  to  determine  in  each  case  whether 
anything  is  gained  by  the  change. 

I.  He  was  a  man  of  courage.  2.  We  acted  ivith  de- 
liberation. 3.  In  the  morning  the  air  is  sweet  and  pure. 
4.  His  muscles  are  as  strong  as  bands  of  iron.  5.  He 
clung  to  his  purpose  with  tenacity.  6.  The  house  of  Mr. 
Jones  was  struck  by  lightning.  7.  He  has  the  strength 
of  an  ox.  8.  She  wore  a  gown  of  light  blue.  9.  He 
turned  the  leaves  in  a  quiet  manner. 

I.  The  royal  palace  is  well  guarded.  2.  Gradually  he 
crept  nearer  the  sentinel.  3.  Instantly  the  report  of  a 
musket  was  heard.  4.  The  cave's  entrance  was  funnel- 
shape.  5.  He  died  poor.  6.  He  plays  more  skilfully 
than  Harold.  7.  Please  go  home  immediately.  8. 
Away  she  sailed  on  golden  wings.  9.  Her  cheeks  are 
rosy.     10.  The  cane  has  a  golden  head. 

I.  What  we  ate  was  well  cooked.  2.  I  think  I  know 
what  he  intends  to  do.  3.  The  man  who  is  poor  may  not 
be  to  blame  for  his  poverty.  4.  He  is  safest  from  danger 
who  is  on  his  guard.  5.  He  is  guilty  of  a  crime  that  is 
punishable  by  death.  6.  When  he  returned,  he  bought 
the  store.  7.  Berries  that  grow  by  the  wayside  are 
smaller  yet  sweeter  than  berries  that  are  grown  in  gar- 
dens. 8.  A  lad  who  seems  to  be  stupid  may  be  a  genius. 
9.  Boys  who  grow  up  in  the  country  are  often  stronger 


SUBSTITUTION  AND  COMBINATION    217 

than  those  who  live  in  the  city.  10.  Let  those  who  are 
to  speak  come  to  the  platform.  11.  I  experienced  a  feel- 
ing of  joy  that  cannot  be  described.  12.  He  was  ad- 
mired by  all  who  lived  in  his  time. 


EXERCISE  145 

Infinitive  and  participle  constructions  are  often 
convenient.  Instead  of  He  came  to  the  city  that 
he  might  see  the  capital  building,  we  may  write  He 
came  to  the  city  to  see  the  capitol  building.  In- 
stead of  When  his  task  was  completed,  he  went 
out  to  play,  we  may  substitute  Having  completed 
his  task,  he  went  out  to  play.  For  Girls  who  whis- 
tle do  not  always  meet  bad  ends,  we  may  substitute 
Whistling  girls  do  not  always  meet  bad  ends. 

Substitute  infinitives  and  participles  wherever 
you  can,  in  the  following  sentences,  noting  in  each 
case  whether  anything  is  gained  by  the  change. 

I.  When  he  had  finished  the  regular  course,  he  de- 
cided to  remain  two  years  more.  2.  She  burst  into  tears 
and  threw  herself  at  his  feet.  3.  Men  who  labor  must 
have  their  recreation.  4.  He  strained  every  muscle,  for 
he  was  determined  to  win.  5.  If  you  turn  to  the  north, 
you  will  see  a  mountain  which  rises  abruptly  from  the 
plain.  6.  He  hoped  to  find  his  companion,  so  he  turned 
back.  7.  A  tall  pine  crowns  the  bluff  and  seems  to 
guard  the  bay.  8.  The  room  is  a  spacious  one  which 
will  seat  fifty  pupils.  9.  Then  Sweet  made  a  run,  which 
tied  the  score.     10.  The  duke,  who  thought  the  fisher- 


2i8  RHETORIC  IN  PRACTICE 

man  was  jesting,  agreed  to  give  one  hundred  lashes  foi 
the  fish. 


EXERCISE  146 

When  reciting  a  lesson  or  telling  a  story,  the 
temptation  is  strong  to  link  together  assertion  after 
assertion  with  the  conjunction  and,  making  of  an 
extended  narrative  a  single  long,  rambling  sen- 
tence. We  do  this  largely  through  habit;  or  Is  it 
because  and  acts  as  a  kind  of  easy-chair  for  the 
mind,  giving  It  a  little  rest  between  each  two  state- 
ments? Whatever  the  cause  may  be,  the  practice 
is  a  bad  one.  It  is  better  to  use  short,  abrupt  sen- 
tences than  to  join  by  and  assertions  that  a**e  not 
closely  related  or  are  of  unequal  value.  It  Is  bet- 
ter still  to  learn  to  subordinate  dependent  state- 
ments, using  simple  and  complex  sentences  freely, 
the  compound  sentences  rarely. 

Subordinate  statements  of  minor  importance  by 
substituting  participial,  infinitive,  and  appositional 
phrases  for  clauses. 

\l.  West  Point  is  a  small  town  in  Orange  County,  New 
York,  and  has  a  population  of  about  one  thousand.  2. 
He  walked  up  the  main  street  and  found  all  the  stores 
closed.  3.  In  the  gymnasium  exhibition,  we  played  an 
important  part  and  covered  ourselves  with  glory.  4. 
-Wright  Lorimer  played  the  part  of  David,  and  he  is  the 
author  of  the  play.  5.  We  started  south  and  made 
Goodwin  Park  our  objective  point.     6.  Ellen  suspected 


SUBSTITUTION  AND  COMBINATION    219 

Red  Murdock,  and  sent  Allan  to  learn  from  him  his  pur- 
pose in  bringing  Fitz  James  to  the  cave.  7.  He  sprang 
to  his  feet  and  demanded  his  name.  8.  The  odor  is  faint 
and  recalls  that  of  sweet  violets.  9.  We  pushed  on  and 
soon  emerged  into  a  stumpy  field  at  the  head  of  a  deep 
valley.  10.  The  ancients  were  not  accurate  observers, 
and  in  this  respect  they  were  like  w^omen  and  children. 
II.  Of  a  warm  thawy  day  in  February,  the  snow^  is  sud- 
denly covered  with  myriads  of  snow^-fleas,  and  these  look 
like  black,  new  powder  just  spilt  there.  "^2.  The  wind 
began  to  blow  and  the  man  turned  up  his  coat-collar. 
13.  They  disputed  for  ^  while  and  then  the  Wind  saw 
a  traveler  passing  by.  14.  It  was  a  disastrous  fire,  and 
the  loss  proved  to  be  over  twenty  thousand  dollars.  15. 
Unceasing  efforts  w^re  made  to  relieve  his  pain,  and  at 
last  he  was  made  comfortable.  16.  I  looked  down  and 
saw  footprints.  17.  Boswell  was  a  Scotch  lawyer  and 
a  great  admirer  of  Samuel  Johnson.  18.  One  hand  is 
spread  out,  and  the  fingers  are  extended,  and  the  palm 
is  turned  down,  in  a  typical  singer's  attitude.  49.  Swift 
was  born  in  Dublin  in  1667,  and  was  the  greatest  satirist 
of  his  day.  20.  The  sunshine-recorder  is  a  recent  addi- 
tion to  the  Weather  Bureau  equipment  and  plays  an  im- 
portant part  in  forecasting.  21.  He  was  completely  dis- 
couraged and  began  to  cry.  22.  The  sky  had  been  dark 
with  threatening  clouds,  but  now  it  was  everywhere  clear. 
23.  The  birds  were  badly  frightened  and  soon  abandoned 
their  nest. 

EXERCISE  147 

Make  each  sentence  in  the  first  group  either  sim- 
ple or  complex.    Make  each  sentence  in  the  second 


220  RHETORIC  IN  PRACTICE 

group  simple.  Try  to  give  prominence  to  state>- 
ments  which  seem  most  important. 

I.  I  have  a  partner  and  he  is  your  porter  and  he 
should  receive  his  share  of  the  reward.  2.  I  v^^as  sewing 
by  the  window  and  I  happened  to  look  up  from  my  work 
and  there  was  father  coming  in  through  the  ,,gate.  3. 
Faith  is  lost,  honor  dies,  and  the  man  is  dead.  4.  I  went 
to  bed  at  half-past  nine  and  it  was  still  snowing.  5.  The 
dishes  were  w^ashed,  the  kitchen  swept,  and  then  we  went 
berrying.  6.  The  conversation  was  not  very  brisk  for 
a  few  minutes,  but  after  a  while  it  became  animated. 

7.  We  rounded  a  deeply  w^ooded  point  and  there  before 
us  was  the  town  of  Hamilton.  8.  The  gong  sounded 
nine  times  and  we  all  prepared  for  fire-drill.  9.  He 
turned  to  close  the  door  and  I  noticed  that  his  hand 
trembled.  10.  The  guide  walked  ahead  of  us,  pointed 
out  the  trail,  and  warned  us  against  hidden  dangers. 

I.  Once  upon  a  time  there  was  a  nobleman  who  was 
going  to  marry  a  peasant  girl.  2.  After  again  calling 
Burt,  who  did  not  answer,  we  started  for  home.  3.  We 
did  not  come  here  that  we  might  annoy  you.  4.  When 
he  saw  how   things  were   going,   he   gave   up   all   hope. 

5.  The  boy,  who  was  an  id]e  fellow,  made  little  progress. 

6.  Enfield,  which  is  a  sleepy  little  town,  came  next  into 
view.     7.  A  brook  which  is  near  by  furnishes  cool  water. 

8.  The  book  is  full  of  stories  which  are  exciting  enough 
for  any  one.  9.  When  the  life-saver  saw  the  lad's  peril, 
he  ran  to  the  rescue.  10.  I  am  just  foolish  enough  so 
that  flattery  pleases  me. 


SUBSTITUTION  AND  COMBINATION    ,221 

EXERCISE  148 

Substitute  for  each  group  of  sentences  a  single 
sentence  in  which  are  combined  all  the  assertions 
of  the  group.  Avoid  the  compound  sentence.  Be 
careful  to  subordinate  statements  of  minor  impor- 
tance. 

I.  A  nobleman  was  to  marry  a  princess.  His  servants 
were  busy.  They  wxre  preparing  the  wedding  feast. 
2.  A  stranger  climbed  the  glade.  This  he  did  as  the 
minstrel  finished  his  song.  The  glade  led  to  the  cave. 
The  stranger  was  dressed  in  a  hunting  suit  of  Lincoln 
green.  3.  He  gave  her  a  ring.  This,  he  said,  the  king 
had  given  him  for  saving  his  life.  4.  The  sumac  presents 
in  early  spring  a  mere  fuzzy  knot.  From  this  knot,  by 
and  by,  emerges  a  soft,  furry  kitten's  paw.  John  Bur- 
roughs writes  this.  The  paw  is  tawny-colored.  5. 
The  skipper  was  an  old  man.  His  face  was  brown  and 
wrinkled.  He  liked  to  spin  yarns.  6.  John  Bright  be- 
came an  excellent  speaker  and  writer.  This  he  accom- 
plished by  studying  the  best  English  authors.  7.  You 
seem  timid.  This  puzzles  me.  You  will  pardon  me 
for  saying  so.  '8.  My  den  is  in  the  attic.  It  is  a  large, 
airy  room.  There  is  little  furniture  in  it.  The  walls  are 
bare.  9.  Two  ladies  stop  before  one  of  the  shop  win- 
dows. They  appear  to  be  mother  and  daughter.  They 
talk  excitedly  about  the  Christmas  display.  K).  The 
Richard  had  forty  guns.  Six  of  these  were  eighteen- 
pounders.  The  rest  were  twelve-,  nine-,  and  six-pounders. 
II.  Hepzibah  grew  deadly  white.  She  staggered  toward 
Phoebe.  She  let  her  head  fall  on  the  young  girl's  shoul- 
der.    This  she  did  no  sooner  than  the  judge  had  disap- 


222  RHETORIC  IN  PRACTICE 

peared.  12.  Phoebe  then  threw  down  a  whole  handful 
of  pennies.  The  monkey  picked  them  up.  This  he  did 
with  joyless  eagerness.  He  handed  them  to  the  Italian 
for  safe  keeping.  Immediately  he  recommenced  a  series 
of  pantomimic  petitions  for  more. 


EXERCISE  149 

Combine  each  of  the  following  groups  of  related 
assertions  into  a  single  sentence.  Be  careful  to 
arrange  the  statements  in  proper  order.  Subor- 
dinate statements  of  minor  importance. 

I.  Harry  has  been  invited.  Mary  has  been  invited. 
Ellen  has  been  invited.  2.  Her  eyes  are  clear.  They 
reveal  her  character.  They  are  gray.  They  are  fear- 
less. 3.  He  hunted  for  the  ring  in  the  house.  He 
hunted  for  it  in  the  garden.  He  searched  for  it  in  the 
street.  The  ring  was  of  great  value.  The  lady  lost  it 
yesterday.  The  search  was  in  vain.  4.  Morning  came. 
John  arose  early.  He  breakfasted  hastily.  He  did  not 
stop  to  light  the  camp  fire.  He  paddled  hastily  across 
the  lake.  He  hoped  to  find  his  companion.  This  com- 
panion he  had  lost  the  day  before,  i  5.  He  lives  in  a 
cabin.  This  cabin  is  built  of  logs.  It  is  thatched  with 
hemlock  boughs.  It  stands  near  a  spring.  It  is  at  this 
spring  that  the  campers  get  their  water.  He  lives  alone. 
6.  The  man  had  no  covering  for  his  head.  His  head 
was  defended  by  his  own  thick  hair.  This  hair  was  mat- 
ted and  twisted  together.  It  was  scorched  by  the  sun. 
It  was  a  rusty  dark  red  in  color.  It  formed  a  contrast 
with  the  beard  on  his  cheeks.     The  beard  was  overgrown. 


SUBSTITUTION  AND  COMBINATION    223 

It  was  yellow  or  amber  in  color.  7.  The  house  stands 
half-way  down  a  by-street.  The  by-street  is  in  one  of 
our  New  England  towns.  The  house  has  seven  acutely 
peaked  gables.  These  gables  face  toward  various  points 
of  the  compass.  It  has  a  huge,  clustered  chimney.  It 
is  a  rust>',  wooden  house.  8.  The  boys  had  selected  a 
site  for  their  camp.  This  they  had  done  before  I  had 
arrived.  The  site  chosen  was  on  high,  dry  ground".  It 
was  in  a  grove  of  pines.  The  pines  bordered  a  beautiful 
sheet  of  water.  This  sheet  of  water  is  about  three  miles 
in  circumference.  9.  He  seized  upon  Ivanhoe.  This  he 
did  with  as  much  ease  as  the  Templar  had  shown  in 
carrying  oif  Rebecca.  He  rushed  with  him  to  the  pos- 
tern. He  again  entered  the  castle.  This  he  did  after 
delivering  his  burden  to  the  care  of  two  yeomen.  He 
entered  the  castle  to  assist  in  the  rescue  of  the  other 
prisoners. 

EXERCISE  150 

A  paragraph  made  up  of  short,  jerky  sentences 
is  unpleasant  to  read,  but  Is  preferable  to  one  that 
rambles  on  and  on,  conjunctions  and  commas  tak- 
ing the  place  of  periods.  So  exasperating  Is  this 
form  of  poor  English  that  many  hard  names  have 
been  given  It.  It  has  been  called  "  the  bad  error," 
"  the  child's  error,"  "  the  badge  of  Ignorance," 
"  the  badge  of  shiftlessness,"  "  the  hopeless  error." 
Calling  names  seldom  does  any  good.  We  had  bet- 
ter forget  all  these  epithets  and  simply  bear  in 
mind  that  the  habit  of  running  sentences  together 
is  an  exceedingly  unfortunate  one,  very  hard  to 


224  RHETORIC  IN  PRACTICE 

overcome.  It  can  be  broken  up  only  by  long,  de- 
termined effort.  In  Exercise  147  you  were  asked 
to  improve  sentences  containing  several  statements 
by  subordinating  the  less  important  assertions.  Ex- 
ercise 150  is  made  up  of  sentences,  some  of  them 
taken  from  school  compositions,  some  from  printed 
books,  which  contain  too  much.  Subordinating 
one  or  two  statements  will  not  do;  the  sentences 
need  to  be  cut  up  into  shorter  ones. 

Cut  up  the  following  sentences  into  shorter  ones, 
making  whatever  changes  you  think  necessary. 

I.  The  tower  was  now  blazing  fiercely  and  the  firemen 
seemed  unable  to  cope  with  it,  as  there  were  so  few 
engines  there,  the  rest  being  busy  at  another  fire.  2.  The 
large  tower  clocks  were  destroyed,  and  after  the  fire  was 
out  the  hands  pointed  to  a  few  minutes  after  the  fire 
broke  out.  3.  This  tree  is  thirty  years  old,  the  trunk 
seven  feet  in  circumference,  spreading  out,  when  about 
four  feet  from  the  ground,  into  numerous  and  graceful 
branches ;  it  is  nearly  flat  on  top ;  the  leaf  is  of  a  dark  and 
glossy  green.  4.  A  little  to  the  eastward  is  the  residence 
of  the  American  Consul ;  during  the  Rebellion  he  rendered 
his  government  great  service,  and  his  berth  here  during 
that  period  was  anything  but  a  bed  of  roses,  for  as  these 
islands  were  a  base  from  whence  the  blockade-runners 
drew  their  supplies,  he  was  regarded  by  that  fraternity 
and  their  sympathizers  here  in  the  light  of  a  spy  upon 
their  movements.  5.  Strange  tales  are  told  of  the  vorac- 
ity of  these  finny  monsters — of  unfortunate  dogs  slipping 
in  and  being  devoured,  and  if  the  visitor  should  come  to 
the  place  when  the  gropers  are  hungry,  and  dip  the  end 


SUBSTITUTION  AND  COMBINATION    225 

of  his  boot  or  his  pocket  handkerchief  among  the  gaping 
throng,  he  will  soon  become  convinced  that  they  are  a 
fearful  lot  of  creatures.  6.  I  started  to  wheel  round  the 
square  and  to  do  so  I  went  dow^n  Court  street  and 
turned  up  Main,  and  just  as  I  turned  the  corner  I  felt 
something  strike  me,  and  it  was  the  shaft  of  an  express 
wagon.  7.  There  are  many  private  gardens  in  the  vicin- 
ity of  Hamilton  that  are  exquisitely  laid  out  and  kept  in 
perfect  order,  some  of  them  contain  magnificent  specimens 
of  the  India-rubber  tree,  one  very  near  the  Hamilton 
House  can  be  seen  that  was  sent  here  thirty-five  years 
ago  from  Essequebo;  it  is  now  grown  to  be  an  enormous 
tree,  the  trunk  twelve  feet  in  circumference,  running  up 
three  or  four  feet  from  the  ground,  and  covering  with 
its  dense  shade  space  all  around  of  at  least  seventy  feet. 
8.  A  good  way  is  to  put  the  coffee  in  a  small  muslin  bag, 
tied  loosely,  then  boil  it  five  minutes,  and  your  grounds 
can  be  removed  before  serving.  9.  I  like  all  outdoor 
games,  but  tennis  is  best  of  all,  it  not  only  affords  good 
exercise  but  is  exciting.  10.  Half-way  down  the  side  street 
stands  a  seven-gabled  structure,  this  is  the  Pyncheon  house. 
II.  I  was  beginning  to  get  impatient  when  I  saw  two  old 
gentlemen,  one  was  very  short  and  stout,  the  other  tall 
and  thin,  wearing  a  black  suit  and  a  high  hat.  12.  The 
Sun  then  began  the  contest,  he  darted  hot  rays  at  the 
traveler's  head.  13.  I  hear  that  it  is  good  skating,  out 
at  the  lake,  crowds  are  going  out  there  on  the  electrics. 
14.  Sirens  are  great  horn-like  affairs  blown  by  com- 
pressed air,  sounds  from  a  siren  have  been  heard  at  a 
distance  of  twenty-five  miles.  15.  Then  the  wind  blew 
as  hard  as  it  could,  the  harder  it  blew  the  tighter  the 
man  drew  his  cloak  about  him.  16.  The  last  thing  at 
night  take  a  few  handfuls  of  clean,  dry  pebbles,  heat  them 


226  RHETORIC  IN  PRACTICE 

in  the  frying-pan  until  very  hot,  place  them  in  the  wet 
boots,  they  will  dry  them  out  thoroughly  in  a  few  hours, 
shake  once  in  a  while.  17.  I  am  sure  you  will  like  our 
city,  it  is  very  pretty  and  contains  many  parks,  the  most 
central  is  Bushnell  park  where  the  fountain  is,  this  park 
is  overlooked  by  the  Capitol.  18.  There  are  many 
places  of  interest  here,  perhaps  the  one  that  you  will 
like  best  is  the  art  museum.  19.  We  have  our  camp  in 
a  grove,  in  front  is  a  lake  a  mile  long.  20.  The  ride 
to  Rainbow  is  beautiful,  all  along  the  route  the  fields  are 
white  with  daisies.  21.  As  we  were  walking  up  the  street 
we  met  Tom,  and  he  suggested  that  we  go  down  to  the 
river  and  see  the  boat  come  in,  so  down  we  went  and 
arrived  just  in  time  to  see  her  come  up  to  the  wharf,  and 
much  to  our  surprise  we  found  Uncle  Harry  there,  he 
was  down  there  waiting  for  a  friend.  22.  Passing  up 
the  side  street  we  came  to  the  main  thoroughfare,  and 
there  we  saw  many  stores,  and  I  suggested  to  my  friend 
that  we  do  a  little  shopping,  for  I  needed  several  things, 
and  she  agreed  that  this  was  a  good  plan,  so  we  entered 
one  of  the  largest  establishments. 


EXERCISE  151 

Inability  to  see  where  sentences  end  leads  to  a 
second  error,  the  opposite  of  that  noted  in  the  pre- 
ceding exercise.  A  clause  or  a  phrase  which  comes 
at  the  end  of  a  sentence  Is  treated  as  If  It  were  an 
Independent  assertion.  Apposltlonal  phrases,  ex- 
planatory participial  phrases  beginning  with  a  pro- 
noun,   relative    clauses    beginning    with    who    or 


SUBSTITUTION  AND  COMBINATION    227 

which,  and  clauses  beginning  with  while  or  since 
used  as  a  conjunction,  are  especially  troublesome. 

Correct  the  following.  Name  each  amputated 
part,  telling  whether  it  is  a  phrase  or  a  clause,  and 
show  clearly  that  it  belongs  to  the  rest  of  the  sen- 
tence and  cannot  stand  alone. 

i.^^The  mountains,  to  be  sure,  are  grand  to  look  at, 
but  one  tires  of  their  monotony.  While  the  ocean,  ever 
changing,  is  always  fascinating.  2.  No  doubt  this  state- 
ment is  quite  true.  Since  few  wealthy  boys  care  enough 
about  sports  to  engage  in  them  enthusiastically.  3.  Seed 
covered  with  too  much  earth  may  never  sprout,  or  if 
they  do  sprout,  the  little  shoots  will  never  reach  the 
surface.  Especially  flower  seeds,  which  should  be 
planted  very  near  the  surface.  4.  The  story  had  to  be 
told  to  Mrs.  Richards.  How  they  had  all  three  spoken 
of  the  skating.  How  each  had  made  up  his  mind  to  go 
without  letting  the  others  know  about  it.  How  they  had 
all  met  unexpectedly  while  on  the  pond.  5-  The  porter 
was  given  a  beating  and  then  discharged.  While  the  fish- 
erman received  a  good  reward.  6.  In  order  to  form  a 
just  conclusion  two  topics  must  be  considered.  First, 
whether  the  prisoner  committed  the  crime.  Second, 
whether  he  is  of  sound  mind.  7.  The  skating  on  the 
pond  is  seldom  good.  The  reason  being  that,  as  the 
water  is  drawn  off  by  the  mills,  the  ice  breaks  away  from 
the  banks.  8.  Some  of  Pope's  poetry  is  shallow,  treating 
serious  matters  with  levity.  While  that  of  Tennyson  is 
more  serious.  9.  I  cannot  begin  to  tell  all  the  fun  we 
had.  The  picnics,  the  fishing  parties,  the  straw  rides. 
10.  Wamba  furnishes  fun  by  his  wit,  the  Friar  by  his 
remarks.     While    Athelstane    amuses    by    his    actions. 


228  RHETORIC  IN  PRACTICE 

Isaac  a  target  for  the  wit  of  others,  ii.  I  think  Scott 
introduces  this  incident  for  two  reasons.  First,  to  give 
Fitz  James  good  cause  for  hating  Roderick;  second,  to 
show  which  side,  according  to  Brian's  prophecy,  is  going 
to  win.  I2i  Then  it  was  tear,  tug,  tussle.  Neither  side 
having  the  advantage.  13.  There  are  two  good  hotels. 
One  at  the  north  end  and  one  at  the  south.  14.  On  a 
bare  table  the  Friar  set  pulse  and  water  for  the  Knight. 
Who,  noticing  the  hermit's  healthy  appearance,  declined 
to  believe  that  the  fare  offered  him  was  the  best  the 
larder  afforded.  1.5.  The  train,  contrary  to  custom, 
slowed  up  at  the  cross-road  and  finally  stopped.  Which 
was  just  what  we  wished.  16.  Donald  was  chosen  cap- 
tain.    He  being  the  oldest  boy  in  the  party. 


EXERCISE  152 

When  reading  a  story,  we  very  much  prefer  to 
find  given  the  exact  words  of  the  characters  rather 
than  a  mere  general  report  of  what  has  been  said. 
That  is  to  say,  we  prefer  direct  discourse  to  indi- 
rect discourse.  Yet  when  we  are  asked  to  tell  a 
story,  we  seem  afraid  to  use  quotation-marks, 
afraid  to  Introduce  a  little  conversation  now  and 
then.  Perhaps  that  Is  why  we  fail  to  be  Inter- 
esting. 

Change  the  following  from  indirect  to  direct 
discourse. 

I.  He  asked  the  lad  his  name,  and  the  Soy  replied 
that  his  name  was  Miltiades  but  that  he  was  called  Ti  for 
short.     2.  Phoebe  asked  her  cousin  Hepzibah  if  she  had 


SUBSTITUTION  AND  COMBINATION    229 

just  spoken  to  her,  and  Hepzibah  replied  that  she  had  not. 

3.  Astonished  at  the  sight  of  a  strange  soldier  descending, 
steed  in  hand,  from  that  solitary  mountain,  the  corporal 
stepped  forth  and  challenged  him.  He  asked  who  went 
there.  The  soldier  replied  that  it  was  a  friend.  Then  the 
corporal  asked  who  and  what  he  was.  Thereupon  he  was 
answered  that  he  was  a  poor  soldier  just  from  the  wars, 
with  a  cracked  crown  and  an  empty  purse  for  reward. 

4.  When  the  girl  was  alone,  the  manikin  came  again 
for  the  third  time,  and  asked  her  what  she  would  give 
him  if  he  would  spin  the  straw  for  her  this  time  also. 
The  girl  answered  that  she  had  nothing  left  that  she  could 
give.  He  then  asked  her  to  promise  that  if  she  should 
become  queen  she  would  give  him  her  first  child.  5. 
Johnny  asked  the  teacher,  as  he  came  into  the  primary 
room  one  morning  in  June,  what  the  flag  was  upon  the 
school  building  for  that  day.  The  teacher  thought  for  a 
moment  and  then  answered  that  really  she  could  not 
remember.  She  said  that  he  might  go  to  the  principal's 
room  and  look  at  the  card  and  then  come  back  and  tell 
her  and  the  pupils.  Johnny  dashed  off  and  a  few  mo- 
ments later  returned,  looking  important.  The  teacher, 
thereupon,  asked  Johnny  to  tell  what  the  flag  was  up  for. 
Johnny  replied  promptly  that  it  was  to  celebrate  some- 
body's wedding.  The  teacher  repeated  Johnny's  words 
slowly,  then  said  that  that  could  not  be,  for  there  was  no 
flag-day  which  celebrated  a  wedding.  Johnny  main- 
tained stoutly  that  it  had  something  to  do  with  a  wed- 
ding, for  the  card  said  so.  The  teacher  was  not  con- 
vinced, and  leaving  the  room  she  went  to  make  a  personal 
investigation.  Under  the  date  of  the  day  in  question  she 
found  that  it  was  the  engagement  of  the  Monitor  and 
the  Merrimac. 


CHAPTER  XVII 
CLEARNESS  THROUGH  UNITY 

Imagine  a  cabinet  containing,  besides  the  cups, 
saucers,  and  plates  for  which  it  was  designed,  a 
few  carpenter's  tools — saws,  hammers,  chisels. 
Imagine  a  sentence  containing  items  that  are  not 
closely  related.  Or  take  this  one,  fresh  from  a 
school  composition:  Hartford  has  many  beautiful 
parks,  and  Mark  Twain  once  made  his  home  in  the 
city.  Plainly  this  too  is  a  hammer  and  teacup  com- 
bination. The  sentence  lacks  unity.  It  lacks  unity 
not  because  it  contains  more  than  one  statement, 
but  because  the  items  brought  together  are  but  re- 
motely related. 

Not  only  should  all  the  items  brought  together 
be  closely  related;  they  should  be  so  displayed  that 
their  relative  importance  is  easily  recognized;  for 
usually  some  one  item  deserves  to  stand  out  more 
prominently  than  the  rest.  In  this  respect  sen- 
tences resemble  pictures.  A  picture  may  show 
many  different  things — a  lonely  stretch  of  ocean, 
for  example,  a  sky  overcast,  in  the  distance  a  half- 
seen  shore;  but  the  eye  is  drawn  irresistibly  to  a 
mass  of  floating  wreckage,  it  may  be,  above  which 

230 


CLEARNESS  THROUGH  UNITY        231 

white  gulls  are  circling.  All  the  Items  are  needed, 
but  attention  Is  focused  upon  one;  the  rest  are 
subordinated.  The  child  links  statement  to  state- 
ment as  If  all  were  of  equal  Importance.  As  he 
grows  older,  he  learns  how  to  subordinate  what- 
ever Is  of  minor  Importance  by  throwing  It  Into  a 
dependent  clause  or  phrase,  or  even  Into  a  single 
word  modifier,  adjective  or  adverb.  Instead  of 
Hartford  is  the  capital  of  Connecticut  and  is  on 
the  Connecticut  river,  he  writes  Hartford,  the  cap- 
ital of  Connecticut,  is  on  the  Connecticut  river. 

Unity,  then,  demands  two  things :  first,  that  only 
Items  closely  related  be  brought  together;  second, 
that  when  related  Items  are  brought  together,  they 
be  so  displayed  that  whatever  deserves  prominence 
receives  it,  and  all  else  Is  subordinated. 

As  the  term  has  been  used  thus  far,  unity  has 
to  do  with  subject-matter.  There  is  another  kind, 
better  called  uniformity  perhaps,  which  has  to  do 
with  sentence  designing.  The  meaning  of  uni- 
formity may  be  illustrated  in  various  ways.  Imag- 
ine, for  example,  a  porch  with  pillars  no  two  of  the 
same  design,  or  a  boy  whose  shoes  are  not  mates. 
Like  the  porch,  like  the  boy  whose  shoes  are  not 
mates,  are  sentences  which  have  what  Is  known  as 
the  shifting  construction,  a  fault  more  often  than 
otherwise  due  to  carelessness,  or  inability  to  keep 
in  mind  till  the  last  word  is  written  the  general 
plan  or  design  of  the  sentence.  For  example,  we 
shift  unconsciously  from  present  tense  to  past, 
from  active  voice  to  passive,  from  masculine  or 


232  RHETORIC  IN  PRACTICE 

feminine  gender  to  neuter,  and  even  from  third 
person  to  first,  through  mere  carelessness,  there  be- 
ing no  good  reason  why  such  changes  should  be 
made.  We  join  by  and  the  two  forms  of  the  in- 
finitive, as  in  the  sentence  /  dislike  writing  compo- 
sitions and  to  memorize  poetry.  Of  the  terms  of 
an  enumeration  we  make  the  first  a  noun,  the  sec- 
ond a  phrase,  the  third  a  clause,  it  may  be,  when 
all  the  terms  might  be  nouns,  or  all  might  be 
clauses.  In  short  the  careless  writer  does  not  take 
sufficient  pains  to  make  similar  such  elements  as 
are  in  the  same  grammatical  or  logical  construction. 
He  forgets  that  when  uniformity  is  lacking  where 
uniformity  is  expected,  the  reader's  sense  of  order 
is  disturbed. 

This  chapter  may  be  condensed  into  the  follow- 
ing three-fold  counsel:  First,  be  careful  not  to 
crowd  into  a  sentence  items  but  remotely  related; 
second,  give  prominence  to  whatever  deserves  it 
and  subordinate  whatever  is  of  minor  importance ; 
third,  take  pains  to  make  similar  such  elements  as 
are  in  the  same  construction.  Remember  the  china 
cabinet,  the  mass  of  wreckage  with  the  gulls  cir- 
cling above,  and  the  pair  of  shoes  that  are  not 
mates. 

Several  of  the  exercises  in  the  preceding  chapter 
afford  practice  in  securing  unity  where  unity  is  lack- 
ing. Here  are  additional  exercises  of  a  similar 
character. 


CLEARNESS  THROUGH  UNITY        233 


EXERCISE  153 

Reconstruct  the  following  sentences,  in  each  case 
making  some  one  item  stand  out  prominently, 

I.  Boston  is  the  capital  of  Massachusetts  and  It  is  some- 
times called  The  Hub.  2.  I  closed  my  eyes  and  thought 
I  could  meet  my  fate  more  easily  in  that  way.  ^.  We 
walked  up  the  street  and  it  led  to  the  center  of  the  town 
and  I  was  surprised  to  see  how  narrow  this  busy  thor- 
oughfare was.  4.  It  was  a  large  house  and  it  had  seven 
acutely  peaked  gables  and  these  gables  met  in  a  clustered 
chimney.  5.  It  was  a  warm  day  in  August  and  I  planned 
to  visit  a  small  island  just  off  the  shore.  '^.  The  three 
were  disguised  as  tillers  of  the  soil  and  started  on  their 
journey  to  Camelot.  7.  It  was  a  delightful  ride  and  we 
reached  home  in  time  for  supper.  8.  In  front  was  a 
large  door  and  on  each  side  of  this  was  a  narrow  window. 
9>^  Madame  Defarge  was  a  stout  woman  and  kept  a  wine- 
shop. 10.  Comus  was  the  son  of  Circe  and  he  possessed 
the  same  power  his  mother  had.  11.  The  first  scene  is  a 
minor  one,  and  shows  that  Antony  is  working  out  his 
plans. 

EXERCISE  154 

Reconstruct  the  following.  If  a  sentence  con- 
tains items  that  are  hut  remotely  related,  substitute 
for  it  two  or  more  shorter  sentences. 

I.  The  picnic  was  held  at  Laurel  Park  and  all  the  way 
out  the  children  laughed  and  sang.  2.  We  were  about 
to  leave  the  swing  and  Helen  caught  her  foot  and  over  she 


234  RHETORIC  IN  PRACTICE 

went;  but  as  the  swing  was  going  slowly,  she  did  not 
hurt  herself,  but  it  took  some  time  to  brush  the  dust 
from  her  frock.  3.  At  twelve  we  ate  lunch,  which  we 
enjoyed  very  much,  and  while  we  were  eating,  a  hungry 
looking  cat  walked  up  and  got  a  good  supply  of  food; 
that  is,  whatever  we  did  not  care  to  save.  4.  He  was 
made  Poet  Laureate  in  1843,  and  died  peacefully  April 
twenty-third,  as  his  favorite  clock  struck  the  hour  of  noon. 


EXERCISE  155 

Combine  each  group  of  statements  into  a  single 
sentence^  giving  prominence  to  whatever  deserves 
it. 

I.  Over  the  heavy  projecting  fireplace  was  suspended  a 
picture  of  a  warrior  in  armor.  He  was  standing  by  a 
white  horse.  On  the  opposite  wall  hung  helmet,  buckler, 
and  lance.  2.  The  squire  was  a  fine,  healthy-looking  old 
gentleman.  His  silver  hair  curled  lightly  round  an  open 
countenance.  His  face  was  florid.  3.  A  post-chaise 
drove  up  to  the  door.  I  had  not  been  long  at  the  inn 
when  this  happened.  4.  There  were  the  customary 
lights.  Besides  these  there  were  two  wax  tapers.  These 
are  called  Christmas  candles.  They  were  wreathed  with 
green.  They  were  placed  on  a  highly  polished  beaufet 
among  the  family  plate.  5.  The  grate  had  been  re- 
moved from  the  fireplace.  This  had  been  done  to  make 
way  for  a  fire  of  wood.  In  the  midst  of  the  fire  was  an 
enormous  log  glowing  and  blazing.  The  fireplace  was 
wide  and  overwhelming.  The  log  sent  forth  a  vast  vol- 
ume of  heat  and  light. 


CLEARNESS  THROUGH  UNITY        235 

EXERCISE  156 

Combine  each  group  of  statements  into  a  com- 
plex sentence, 

I.  Our  eldest  son  was  named  George.  He  was  named 
after  his  uncle.  This  uncle  had  left  us  ten  thousand 
pounds.  2.  We  received  a  card  from  the  two  ladies. 
This  card  came  towards  the  end  of  the  week.  They 
hoped,  the  card  said,  to  see  all  our  family  at  church  the 
Sunday  following.  3.  Mr.  Thornhill's  butler  came.  His 
purpose  in  coming  was  to  congratulate  us  upon  our  good 
fortune.  He  said  that  he  had  overheard  his  young  master 
mention  our  names  with  great  commendation.  Moses 
had  scarce  gone  when  the  butler  appeared.  4.  Most  of 
the  family  walked  to  the  church.  This  they  did  because 
the  morning,  though  frosty,  was  remarkably  fine  and 
clear.  The  church  was  an  old  building  of  gray  stone. 
It  stood  near  a  village  about  half  a  mile  from  the  park 
gate.  5.  The  butler  brought  in  a  huge  silver  vessel. 
This  he  did  when  the  cloth  was  removed.  He  placed  the 
vessel  before  the  squire.  It  was  of  rare  and  curious 
workmanship. 


EXERCISE  157 

Combine  each  group  of  statements  into  a  sim- 
ple sentence y  giving  prominence  to  whatever  de- 
serves it. 

I.  At  a  little  distance  from  my  house  was  a  seat.  My 
predecessor  had  made  it.  The  seat  was  overshadowed 
by  hawthorn  and  honeysuckle.     2.  His  schoolhouse  was 


236  RHETORIC  IN  PRACTICE 

a  low  building.  It  was  rudely  constructed  of  logs.  It 
contained  but  one  room.  The  room  was  a  large  one. 
The  windows  were  partly  glazed.  They  were  partly 
patched  with  leaves.  The  leaves  were  from  old  copy- 
books. 3.  The  schoolhouse  was  in  a  pleasant  situation. 
A  brook  ran  close  by.  The  building  stood  just  at  the 
foot  of  a  woody  hill.  Conveniently  near  grew  a  formi- 
dable birch  tree.  The  situation  was  lovely.  4.  Hard  by 
the  farmhouse  was  a  barn.  This  barn  might  have  served 
for  a  church,  it  was  so  large.  Every  window  and  crevice 
seemed  bursting  forth  with  the  treasure  of  the  farm.  5. 
It  was  a  spacious  farmhouse.  It  was  high-ridged,  but  it 
had  low-sloping  roofs.  The  low,  projecting  eaves  formed 
a  piazza  along  the  front.  The  piazza  could  be  closed  up 
in  bad  weather.  The  house  was  built  in  the  style  handed 
down  from  the  first  Dutch  settlers. 


EXERCISE  158 

Reconstruct  the  following  sentences  with  a  view 
to  bringing  about  uniformity. 

I.  The  yacht  gave  its  owner  a  feeling  of  intense  pride 
as  she  crept  ahead  of  her  competitors.  2.  When  a  boy  is 
going  to  a  ball  game,  he  will  use  every  means  to  be  on 
time ;  so  why  should  they  not  take  equal  pains  not  to  be 
late  to  school?  3.  You  find  that  many  of  your  com- 
petitors are  expert;  so  when  the  day  for  the  swimming 
contest  arrives,  it  is  not  strange  that  one  should  feel 
nervous.  4.  Mr.  Jones  accepts  with  pleasure  Mrs. 
Brown's  invitation  to  dine  with  her  Thursday  the  seven- 
teenth.    Yours   truly,   Alfred    L.   Jones.     5.  If   final   y 


CLEARNESS  THROUGH  UNITY        237 

is  preceded  by  a  consonant,  change  the  y  to  i  before  add- 
ing a  suffix  not  beginning  with  i;  otherwise  it  does  not 
change.  6.  As  they  entered  the  building,  Mary  says 
laughingly  to  Ellen,  "  Well,  sister,  I  presume  you  have 
forgotten  your  tickets,  as  usual."  7.  After  dinner  each 
was  conducted  to  their  rooms.  8.  After  this  the  mix- 
ture is  stirred  constantly  until  it  becomes  smooth;  then 
add  ale  enough  to  make  it  thin,  cook  it  a  few  minutes 
longer,  and  serve  on  dry  toast  or  crackers.  9.  To  be 
thoroughly  mastered,  an  essay  by  Bacon  must  be  read 
and  reread,  weighing  each  word  and  pondering  its  mean- 
ing. 10.  She  believes  that  if  one  does  not  wear  a  precious 
stone  appropriate  to  the  month  of  their  birth,  they  will 
have  bad  luck. 


EXERCISE  159 

Improve  the  following  sentences,  keeping  in 
mind  that  a  coordinate  conjunction  should  be  used 
to  join  elements  of  the  same  kind  only. 

V.  Three  things  are  necessary:  first,  a  good  play;  sec- 
ond, a  good  seat;  third,  be  sure  to  leave  your  worries  at 
home.  \^.  To  talk  in  public,  to  think  in  solitude,  to  read 
and  to  hear,  and  inquiring  and  answering  inquiries  is  the 
business  of  the  scholar.  3.  At  first  I  was  overawed  by 
the  immensity  of  the  building  and  because  there  was  such 
a  host  of  people  hurrying  about.  4.  These  garments  are 
popular  for  three  reasons:  first,  they  are  exceedingly  be- 
coming; second,  their  light  weight;  and  third,  for  their 
warmth.  5.  Every  now  and  then  a  carriage  would  come 
rumbling  up  the  driveway  and  was  greeted  by  shouts  and 


238  RHETORIC  IN  PRACTICE 

cheers.  6.  No  sooner  had  the  luggage  been  taken  from 
the  launch  and  the  tables  were  set,  than  a  terrible  rum- 
bling was  heard.  7.  Lamb,  a  contemporary  of  Words- 
worth and  Byron,  was  born  February  10,  1775,  in  the 
Temple,  London,  where  his  father  was  a  clerk  to  Samuel 
Salt,  and  was  in  very  poor  circumstances.  8.  He  was  a 
boy  of  good  character  and  who  was  popular  among  his 
mates.  9.  No  sooner  had  we  reached  the  house  and  began 
to  feel  at  home  than  the  order  came  to  pack  for  another 
long  journey.  10.  Mr.  George  Clarke,  now  vice  presi- 
dent and  director  of  the  bank,  its  cashier  at  organization, 
and  who  has  been  officially  connected  with  it  for  many 
years,  celebrates  his  eightieth  birthday  to-morrow.  11. 
Please  print  this  advertisement  for  three  days,  and  enclosed 
3^ou  will  find  twenty-five  cents.  12.  He  began  to  suspect 
Cassius,  one  of  his  associates,  and  to  whom  he  was  warmly 
attached.  13.  No  sooner  did  Brutus  depart  and  Antony 
had  mounted  the  pulpit  than  all  was  lost.  M4.  To  the 
right  of  the  door  is  a  thriving  vine  which  clambers  high 
and  covering  one  of  the  windows  completely.  \/i5.  Ma- 
caulay  wrote  the  essay  because  he  admired  Addison  and 
to  correct  false  impressions  concerning  him.  16.  I  have, 
and  often  shall,  look  back  to  the  pleasure  of  our  visit. 
117.  The  lady,  having  lost  her  way,  and  as  night  was  com- 
ing on,  felt  that  her  plight  was  serious.  18.  Round 
about  the  Kaiser  were  gathered  the  wealth,  the  intellect, 
the  beauty,  and  the  aldermen  and  common  councilors  of 
London.  19.  I  have  tried  to  show  that  Gareth  pos- 
sessed the  following  good  qualities:  courtesy,  ambitious, 
braveness,  and  strong  willed. 


CLEARNESS  THROUGH  UNITY        239 

EXERCISE  160 

Remodel  the  following.  Avoid  the  shifting  con^ 
struction;  keep  your  point  of  view.  When  neces- 
sary, make  two  sentences  of  one. 

I.  Burke's  objections  to  the  use  of  force  were  (i)  its 
uncertainty,  (2)  it  is  temporary,  (3)  impairs  the  object 
fought  for,  (4)  England  has  no  experience  in  using  force 
in  this  form  of  restraint.  2.  His  objections  to  the  use  of 
force  were  that  it  was  uncertain,  temporary,  that  it  im- 
pairs the  object,  and  that  experience  did  not  show  It  to 
be  wise  to  use  force.  3.  The  toy  schooner  in  the  fore- 
ground is  trimmed  with  tinsel  ropes  and  little  electric 
lights  of  different  colors,  and  having  perfumery  bottles 
as  a  cargo.  4.  Messala  tells  TItlnlus  to  find  Pindarus  and 
that  he  himself  would  tell  Brutus.  5.  I  used  to  go  down 
to  the  wharf  every  afternoon  and  listen  to  the  fishermen 
tell  about  their  experiences  and  to  watch  the  boats  come 
in.  6.  He  offered  wine  to  every  traveler,  and  if  they 
took  It,  their  head  was  changed  into  that  of  a  beast.  7. 
The  case  contained  a  collection  of  coins,  some  of  England, 
some  of  Spain,  and  some  from  this  country.  8.  He  hears 
the  lark  singing  and  the  crowing  of  the  cock.  9.  His 
good  traits  are  determination,  faithfulness,  generous,  and 
honesty.  10.  There  are  men  who  fish  for  the  mere  joy 
of  killing  trout,  and  other  fish  such  as  the  tarpon  in 
Florida  are  caught  because  they  are  gamey  and  fight  for 
their  lives,  and  after  they  are  caught  are  not  used.  11. 
Jerry  had  a  very  hoarse  voice  and  wore  an  old  cocked  hat 
down  over  his  eyes,  which  gave  him  a  sinister  expression. 
12.  The  average  ferry-boat  Is  very  clumsy  and  draws 
about  three  feet  of  water.     13.  Dost  thou  hesitate?    You 


240  RHETORIC  IN  PRACTICE 

are  lost  if  you  delay.  14.  Sabrina  was  rescued  by  the 
daughters  of  Nereus,  who,  putting  her  through  an  immor- 
tal change,  she  becomes  goddess  of  the  river  Severn.  15. 
Addison  had  a  better  education  than  Johnson  did.  16. 
He  desired  an  amendment  of  the  Treason  Act,  and  to 
pass  a  law  that  judges  should  hold  office  during  good 
behavior.  17.  Much  space  is  devoted  to  criticisms  of  his 
works  and  in  describing  his  trials  in  getting  them  pub- 
lished. 18.  The  changes  in  the  rules  have  brought  about 
improvement,  both  from  the  spectators'  standpoint  and  in 
making  the  game  less  dangerous.  19.  There  shall  be 
an  advisory  board  of  three,  the  duty  of  which  shall  be 
to  advise  the  officers  of  the  association  and  attend  to  such 
business  as  may  be  referred  to  them.  I29.  The  mob  meets 
Cinna  and  wish  to  put  him  to -death.  21.  The  boys  de- 
cide that  they  could  go  no  further  that  night  and  to  make 
a  rude  shelter  that  would  serve  to  keep  off  the  rain.  (2yt. 
This  is  the  house  that  I  mentioned  and  which  is  for  sale. 
23.  Not  having  heard  from  the  agent,  and  as  there  was 
no  time  to  lose,  we  made  our  purchases  elsewhere.  24. 
Boys  that  are  physically  strong,  and  who  are  willing  to 
work,  are  sure  of  employment.  2j.  He  promised  to  go 
quickly  and  that  he  would  never  return.  26.  The  colo- 
nists were  descendants  of  the  English  and  have  the  Eng- 
lish conception  of  what  constitutes  liberty.  27.  He  saw 
the  trout  as  it  lay  near  the  bottom,  and  soon  had  him  in 
his  basket.  28.  The  sources  of  this  spirit  of^liberty  were 
as  follows:  their  religion,  education,  slavery  in  the  South, 
form  of  government,  distance  from  the  mother  country, 
and  they  were  descendants  of  liberty  loving  Englishmen. 
29.  I  am  more  desirous  of  pleasing  him  than  to  succeed 
in  this  enterprise. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 
CLEARNESS  THROUGH  COHERENCE 

The  purpose  of  this  chapter  is  to  show  how 
clearness  and  force  may  be  gained  through  taking 
pains  to  so  arrange  each  sentence  that  the  rela- 
tionship of  part  to  part  is  unmistakable.  It  has 
to  do  with  what  is  called  coherence. 

Seldom  do  subject  and  predicate  give  any  trou- 
ble ;  they  are,  as  a  rule,  discoverable  at  a  glance,  even 
when  sentences  are  clumsily  constructed.  Rarely 
do  adjectives  stray  from  the  words  they  qualify. 
But  adverbs,  phrases,  and  clauses  are  sometimes 
placed  so  far  away  from  the  words  they  modify 
as  to  cause  the  reader  perplexity;  and  pronouns  are 
used  so  carelessly  that  it  Is  not  always  clear  to  what 
antecedents  they  should  be  referred.  In  a  word, 
through  faulty  arrangement  many  sentences  are 
like  picture  puzzles ;  the  various  parts  lie  before  the 
reader,  but  they  are  almost  meaningless  till  prop- 
erly fitted  together.  Plain  courtesy  should  prompt 
one  to  spare  the  reader  this  unpleasant  task,  which 
distracts  attention  and  therefore  weakens  the  force 
of  the  message  the  sentence  conveys. 

But  coherence  is  a  broad  term,  embracing  far 
241 


242  RHETORIC  IN  PRACTICE 

more  than  grammatical  arrangement.  We  say  of 
a  person  slightly  out  of  his  mind  that  he  talks  in- 
coherently, meaning  that  what  he  says  does  not 
follow  the  natural  order;  there  Is  no  logical  se- 
quence to  his  utterances.  Everything  Is  "  mixed 
up  '* — his  mind  wanders.  The  constable  Dog- 
berry, a  character  In  Much  Ado  about  Nothings 
thus  accuses  his  prisoners:  "  Marry,  sir,  they  have 
committed  false  report;  moreover,  they  have 
spoken  untruths;  secondarily,  they  are  slanders; 
sixth  and  lastly,  they  have  belled  a  lady;  thirdly, 
they  have  verified  unjust  things;  and,  to  conclude, 
they  are  lying  knaves.''  We  laugh  not  only  at  the 
constable's  misuse  of  words,  but  at  the  illogical 
way  in  which  he  numbers  his  charges;  for  surely 
thirdly  belongs  before  sixthly  and  lastly,  and  we 
question  his  secondarily. 

There  Is  something  of  Dogberry  In  most  of  us. 
We  do  not  always  think  straight,  and  consequently 
our  sentences  ramble.  We  do  not  follow  the  nat- 
ural sequence  of  time,  when  telling  a  story,  nor  do 
we  have  a  definite  plan  when  describing  a  land- 
scape. Endeavoring  to  explain  things,  we  jumble 
together  cause  and  effect,  acts  and  motives.  That 
Is,  we  set  down  items  carelessly,  without  troubling 
to  arrange  them.  It  Is  as  if  the  coal  car  were 
placed  in  front  of  the  locomotive,  and  the  caboose 
In  the  middle  of  the  train. 

Not  only  should  the  Items  of  a  sentence  be  ar- 
ranged In  accordance  with  some  natural  or  logical 
plan,  that  coming  first  which  belongs  first,  and  so 


CLEARNESS  THROUGH  COHERENCE    243 

on,  but  extreme  care  should  be  taken  In  making 
transitions  from  one  Item  or  assertion  to  the  next. 
A  sentence  may  be  extremely  long  and  contain 
many  Items,  yet  be  perfectly  clear,  provided  the 
transitions  are  carefully  managed.  The  trained 
writer  may  be  told  by  the  skill  with  which  he  uses 
certain  words  serving  as  guides  or  heralds  lead- 
ing the  reader's  mind  from  one  part  of  a  sentence 
to  another  part,  or  from  one  sentence  to  the  next, 
and  explaining  the  relationship  of  what  Is  coming 
to  what  has  gone  before. 

Best  known  of  all  these  guides  is  and,  which 
simply  bids  the  reader  go  right  on;  what  follows 
is  but  a  continuation,  or  is  like  what  precedes. 
And  corresponds  to  the  plus  sign  in  arithmetic. 
But,  on  the  contrary,  warns  that  exception  is  to 
be  taken  to  a  previous  statement;  it  announces 
opposition,  or  a  contrast.  If  what  follows  is  merely 
an  explanation  of  what  is  behind,  there  stands  for 
announcing  a  cause  or  reason.  Therefore  heralds 
a  conclusion  or  consequence.  Then  and  there  are 
time  and  place  keepers,  helping  the  reader  to  keep 
orderly  track  of  things  as  they  happen  one  after 
another.  And,  but,  for^  therefore,  then,  and  there, 
to  which  may  be  added  if  announcing  a  condition, 
are  guides  which  save  a  great  deal  of  trouble.  Or 
we  may  think  of  them  as  links  binding  together 
the  parts  of  a  sentence,  or  as  bridges  leading  from 
one  statement  to  another.  Whether  we  think  of 
them  as  bridges,  links,  guides,  or  heralds,  we  see 
their  purpose.     It  takes  years  of  practice,  how- 


244  RHETORIC  IN  PRACTICE 

ever,  to  learn  to  use  them  effectively.  Indeed,  an 
untrained  writer  Is  detected  at  once  by  the  clumsi- 
ness with  which  he  links  statement  to  statement, 
just  as  an  unskilled  carpenter  Is  betrayed  by  his 
poor  "  joinery."  The  tendency  is  to  omit  the  links 
altogether,  or  to  use  a  weak  word  where  a  strong 
one  is  needed,  or  to  use  and,  hut,  etc.,  over  and 
over,  as  if  there  were  not  many  words  which  serve 
admirably  as  synonyms  for  each. 

This  is  the  conclusion :  Take  pains  to  so  arrange 
each  sentence  that  it  coheres  grammatically  and 
logically.  Acquire  the  art  of  using  transitional 
words  and  phrases  with  precision. 


EXERCISE  161 

Revise  the  following,  with  a  view  to  making  the 
meaning  clearer.  Do  not  hesitate  to  entirely  recast 
a  sentence,  if  by  so  doing  you  can  make  it  distinctly 
better. 

I.  The  corn  was  roasted  by  the  boys  on  the  ends  of 
long,  pointed  sticks.  2.  He  then  conducted  me  to  a  little 
chapel  where  all  his  ancestors  had  been  married  for  cen- 
turies. 3.  I  neither  call  myself  rich  nor  poor.  4.  The 
hound  was  making  a  desperate  attempt  to  get  his  fore- 
paws  over  the  side  of  the  boat,  at  the  same  time  seizing 
the  rope  that  held  the  boat  in  his  teeth.  5.  Three  days 
after  the  close  of  school,  June  25,  we  started  on  our 
cruise.  6.  He  had  only  been  present  three  days,  when  he 
was  taken  ill.     7.  This  was  taken  from  the  dress  which 


CLEARNESS  THROUGH  COHERENCE    245 

Marie  Antoinette  wore  at  her  execution  by  an  eye  wit- 
ness. 8.  Echo,  a  mountain  nymph,  fell  in  love  with  the 
son  of  a  river  god  named  Narcissus.  9.  He  noticed  sev- 
eral odd-looking  persons  going  in  and  out  of  a  certain 
room.  This  aroused  his  curiosity,  and  he  resolved  to 
enter  himself.  10.  Both  the  speeches  of  Brutus  and  ^ 
Antony  were  delivered  with  a  definite  purpose  in  view.  . 
II.  Lady  Macbeth  did  not  continue  murdering  people 
like  Macbeth;  her  conscience  was  too  tender.  12.  He 
saw  the  form  of  the  crouching  bloodhound,  his  eyes  glar- 
ing in  the  moonlight,  his  jaws  open  and  poising  for  a 
spring.  13.  Brutus  finds  the  book  he  has  lost  in  the 
pocket  of  his  dressing-gown.  14.  He  was  driving  awa>^ 
from  the  church  where  he  had  been  married  in  a  coach/ 
and  six.  15.  In  the  South  at  Christmas  time  the  children 
delight  in  shooting  off  firecrackers,  for  Christmas  is 
Fourth  of  July  to  them  also.  16.  After  a  while  we  left 
the  road  and  followed  a  swift-flowing  brook,  with  occa- 
sional sluggish  spots  where  lilies  grew  in  abundance.  17. 
As  a  writer  Macaulay  considers  Addison  onj.y  remarkable 
along  one  line.  18.  Milton  very  unwillingly  gave  his 
tribute  to  the  memory  of  his  dead  friend,  probably  be- 
cause he  felt  that  his  grief  was  too  sacred  for  public  dis- 
play. 19.  Macaulay  was  displeased  with  Miss  Aikin's 
life  of  Addison,  and  so  resolved  to  write  an  essay  on  Addi- 
son himself.  20.  He  brought  out  a  snowplow  built  of 
old  boards  from  under  the  shed.  21.  We  built  a  stone 
fireplace  and  put  the  top  of  an  old  stove  which  had  been 
left  by  previous  campers  on  top  of  it.  22.  We  walked 
up  to  the  cabin,  where  many  fisherman's  articles  lay  scat- 
tered about,  including  nets,  lobster  pots,  fish  lines,  and 
bait.  23.  In  the  opening  lines  of  the  poem  Milton  shows 
his   unwillingness   to   write   repeatedly.      24.  After   the 


246  RHETORIC  IN  PRACTICE 

cheer  there  was  a  lull,  which  was  broken  by  the  starter's 
voice,  Mr.  Alvord.  25.  The  hero  of  the  book's  name  Is 
Theodore.  26.  Brutus  tries  to  show  the  people  In  his 
speech  that  It  was  right  to  kill  Caesar.  27.  The  novel 
jIves  the  events  which  led  up  to  the  battle  In  story  form. 
28.  The  Board  of  Education  has  resolved  to  erect  a  build- 
ing large  enough  to  accommodate  five  hundred  students 
three  stories  high.  29.  These  lines  were  written  nearly 
I  fifty  years  ago  by  one  who  has  for  several  years  lain  in 
the  grave  for  his  own  amusement. 


EXERCISE  162 

Pronouns  are  the  principal  ofenders  in  the  fol- 
lowing sentences.  Every  pronoun  should,  of 
course,  have  a  clearly  defined,  easily  discoverable 
antecedent.  Every  relative  clause  should  he  so 
placed  that  the  reader  can  see  at  a  glance  its  con- 
nection with  the  rest  of  the  sentence.  Revise,  re- 
moving all  obscurity,  ambiguity,  and  awkwardness 
of  expression. 

I.  This  was  due  to  the  guide's  carelessness,  who  neg- 
lected to  tie  the  boats  securely.  2.  They  gave  grass  to 
the  animal  which  was  not  fit  to  be  eaten.  3.  Each  man 
had  to  slide  down  a  rope  to  the  ground  which  was  at- 
tached to  the  roof.  4.  She  called  out  to  him  to  unravel 
his  stocking  and  tie  something  heavy  to  the  end  of  it.  5. 
Then  we  entered  a  room  where  they  make  the  moulds. 
6.  In  Milton's  poem  Lycidas  he,  Milton,  laments  the  loss 
of  his  friend  King.  7.  In  the  business  world  many  a 
young  man  has  worked  his  way  from  a  low  position  to  a 


CLEARNESS  THROUGH  COHERENCE     247 

high  one,  passing  by  people  who  have  been  employed  there 
a  longer  time  than  he  has  been.  8.  Just  as  they  were 
about  to  begin,  there  came  a  rap  at  the  gate,  which,  upon 
being  opened,  disclosed  a  fisherman.  9.  I  hope  this  letter 
will  reach  some  kind  person's  hands  who  will  come  to  my 
rescue.  10.  A  carpet-sweeper  is  a  contrivance  for  picking 
up  dust  and  scraps  from  the  floor  when  it  is  rolled  up 
and  down.  11.  He  gave  my  uncle  the  tickets,  who 
thanked  him  for  them.  12^  In  scene  two  it  shows  Brutus 
and  Cassius  quarreling.  13.  In  Antony's  speech  he  did 
not  refer  to  himself  as  he  (Brutus)  did  in  his.  14.  On 
our  way  we  passed  John's  house,  whom  we  asked  to  join 
our  party.  15.  We  saw  the  house  in  which  Maria 
Mitchell  was  born,  who  was  a  distinguished  astronomer. 
16.  Strangers  notice  at  Mt.  Holyoke  college  little  marks 
of  courtesy  such  as  getting  o^  the  sidewalks  and  giving 
them  the  best  seats,  ip  At  the  universities  they  do  a 
great  deal  to  help  needy  students.  18.  The  racing 
proved  the  one  uninteresting  feature  of  the  day,  owing  to 
the  fact  that  each  was  won  in  three  straight  heats.  19. 
A  huge  brass-trimmed  urn  ornaments  the  top  of  the  stove 
which  is  about  five  feet  high.  20.  We  took  the  shucks 
off  the  walnuts  and  stirred  them  into  the  candy.  21. 
John  Bright,  an  excellent  speaker  and  w^riter,  accom- 
plished this  by  studying  the  best  English  authors.  22. 
A  look  of  disappointment  came  over  his  face,  but  it  sud- 
denly lit  up  again  as  he  answered.  23.  I  asked  the  man's 
advice  who  made  the  boat.  24.  If  the  diphthong  ie  has 
the  sound  of  long  e,  the  i  comes  first  unless  it  is  preceded 
by  c.  25.  On  the  second  day,  my  feet  got  so  blistered 
that  I  had  to  go  barefoot ;  so  I  tied  my  bootlaces  together 
and  put  them  over  my  shoulder.  26.  We  rode  on  till 
we  reached  a  stream  they  call  Dean  Branch.     27.  We 


248  RHETORIC  IN  PRACTICE 

put  the  cattails  to  soak — in  oil,  not  water — and  the  next 
day  persuaded  the  boys  to  bring  us  driftwood;  but  it 
was  no  easy  task.  It  took  three-quarters  of  an  hour  to 
get  them  keyed  up  to  the  proper  pitch.  28.  Supposing 
the  regular  station  of  the  Atlantic  fleet  had  been  the 
Pacific  coast  and  an  outbreak  had  occurred  in  New  York 
which  required  the  Pacific  fleet  to  come  to  the  Atlantic 
coast,  then  England  might  justly  have  claimed  that  the 
United  States  was  going  to  make  war  on  them.  29.  The 
King  had  appointed  councilors  before  the  colony  sailed 
from  England,  but  instead  of  making  known  their  names 
he  gave  strict  orders  that  they  should  be  placed  in  a  sealed 
box  not  to  be  opened  till  the  Colony  reached  America. 
Curiously  enough,  when  the  names  were  taken  from  the 
box,  John  Smith  was  found  among  them.  30.  We  sat 
before  the  kitchen  fire,  which  was  the  best  room  in  the 
house.  31.  And  the  man  came  into  the  house;  and  he 
ungirdled  his  camels,  and  gave  straw  and  provender  for 
the  camels,  and  water  to  wash  his  feet  and  the  men's  feet 
that  were  with  him.  32.  I  cannot  begin  to  tell  you 
how  many  windows  there  are,  but  I  know  there  are  about 
as  many  as  there  are  doorknobs,  one  of  which  is  open  that 
the  summer  breeze  may  blow  in  and  out  to  suit  itself. 
33.  Another  thing  I  noticed  was  the  lengthy  paragraph- 
ing, one  I  found  being  four  and  one-half  pages  long.  34. 
She  clambered  into  the  boat,  with  the  help  of  the  others, 
and  took  off  her  shoes,  and  for  the  rest  of  the  ride  they 
were  very  quiet  because  frightened.  35.  It  is  less  than 
twenty-one  years  since  the  first  house  was  erected  in 
B ,  and  now  it  contains  20,120  inhabitants. 


CLEARNESS  THROUGH  COHERENCE     249 


EXERCISE  163 

//  a  participial  phrase  has  no  substantive  to 
which  it  can  attach  itself,  or  if  it  dangles  loosely 
between  two  substantives,  the  sentence  is  pretty 
sure  to  be  ambiguous  or  obscure  or  even  meaning- 
less. Especially  in  elliptical  sentences  is  there  dan- 
ger that  the  reader  will  relate  the  participle  to  some 
substantive  expressed,  when  it  really  modifies  a  sub- 
stantive which  the  writer  has  merely  in  mind.  Re- 
vise the  following  sentences. 

I.  I  sailed  on  a  first-class  steamer,  being  fully  equipped 
with  the  latest  improvements.  2.  We  walked  down  the 
main  street,  paved  with  cobble  stones.  3.  On  entering 
the  room,  the  first  thing  that  met  his  eyes  was  a  large, 
square  table.  4.  After  long  wondering  what  was  to  be- 
come of  me,  the  lid  of  the  box  in  which  I  was  confined 
was  raised.  5.  Theater  programmes  are  often  read 
through  from  cover  to  cover  while  waiting  for  the  cur- 
tain to  rise.  6.  Tins  should  be  washed  in  hot,  soapy 
water,  taking  especial  care  of  seams  and  corners.  7. 
Having  had  your  bath  and  having  been  tucked  in  clean 
sheets,  the  nurse  puts  the  room  to  rights.  8.  After  trying 
to  get  away  from  me  several  times,  I  finally  got  the  cattle 
home  about  half  past  seven.  9.  Drawing  nearer,  the 
mountain  appears  more  rugged,  with  a  thick  undergrowth 
of  white  birch  brush ;  advancing  towards  the  top,  the  trees 
begin  to  thin  out.  10.  In  those  days  the  mail  was  car- 
ried by  men  on  horseback  from  place  to  place,  exchang- 
ing the  mail  at  each  town,  one  man  covering  a  large 
territory.     11.  The  first  impression  I  received  was  that 


250  RHETORIC  IN  PRACTICE 

a  great  many  toys  had  been  emptied  into  the  window 
without  trying  to  put  them  in  any  kind  of  order.  12. 
Having  given  the  usher  our  tickets,  he  escorted  us  to  our 
seats.  13.  Such  as  drank  of  the  magic  liquid,  she  touched 
with  her  magic  wand,  thereby  changing  them  into  grovel- 
ing swine,  but  retaining  their  consciousness.  14.  Being 
nearly  exhausted,  we  carried  him  to  camp  on  an  impro- 
vised stretcher.  15.  The  behavior  of  the  boys  can  hardly 
be  excused  on  any  ground,  refusing  to  help  the  old  man 
when  he  cried  out  to  them.  16.  Before  entering  the 
park  a  fine  view  of  the  city  can  be  had.  17.  One  day 
when  sitting  on  the  beach,  the  tide  was  coming  in,  and  as 
we  looked  we  saw  a  little  child  standing  knee-deep  in  the 
water.     18.  The  hides  were  cured,  making  them  soft  and 

supple.     19.  B is    eight    miles    from    any    railway. 

Located  in  the  heart  of  the  Berkshires,  the  scenery  is  hard 
to  surpass.  20.  We  all  enjoyed  watching  these  poor  peo- 
ple with  their  bags  and  bundles  around  on  deck  smoking 
and  talking  among  themselves.  21.  In  1618  his  educa- 
tion proper  began,  studying  at  home,  in  school,  and  with 
different  tutors.  22.  On  ringing  the  bell  the  wicket 
was  opened  from  within.  23.  Winding  in  and  out  be- 
tween beautiful  banks,  many  an  exclamation  fell  from 
their  lips. 


EXAMPLE  164 

Not  infrequently  sentences  are  faulty  because 
necessary  words  have  been  omitted.  Such  omis- 
sions are  like  ditches  which  the  reader  must  bridge 
before  he  can  pass  on.  Supply  necessary  words 
missing  from  the  following  sentences. 


CLEARNESS  THROUGH  COHERENCE     251 

I.  You  make  the  custard  first,  and  when  cooked  pour 
into  the  freezer-can.  2.  Oliver  Twist,  one  of  Dickens's 
novels,  is  as  interesting  to  a  boy  as  a  girl.  3.  It  is  as 
quick,  if  not  quicker  than,  the  other.  4.  He  never  has, 
and  I  fear  he  never  will  be,  fond  of  reading.  5.  He  then 
suggested  we  go  see  the  hens.  6.  The  instruments  used 
in  recording  the  weather  are  the  barometer,  wind-gauge, 
anemometer,  sunshine-recorder,  rain-gauge,  and  snow- 
gauge.  7.  Will  the  person  who  by  mistake  took  a  bicycle 
from  in  front  of  the  post  office  yesterday  kindly  return 
or  notify  A.  M.  Garvin?  8.  Wanted:  A  servant  who 
can  cook  and  care  for  children.  9.  It  was  a  beautiful 
June  evening  that  our  party  gathered  about  the  camp  fire. 
10.  While  driving  to  town,  the  horse  ran  away.  11.  The 
leader  directs  the  orchestra,  a  task  calling  for  great  tact, 
especially  so  since  many  players  are  foreigners  whose  cus- 
toms are  different  from  ours  and  are  easily  offended. 
12.  Her  character  was  quite  unlike  the  other  members 
of  the  family.  13.  Perhaps  squirrels  think  autumn  too 
short  a  season  to  prepare  for  winter.  14.  In  those  days 
every  lady  of  refinement,  as  well  as  man,  could  read 
Greek.  15.  Newcastle  is  only  eighteen  miles  from  Can- 
ton, and  we  knew  that  when  trains  run  on  time  it  takes 
about  an  hour.  16.  The  dog  goes  after  the  cows,  and 
he  brings  them  successfully,  if  nothing  is  the  matter,  when 
one  of  the  men  has  to  go  and  call  them.  17.  He  showed 
me  a  lot  of  medals  he  won.  18.  He  decided  that  he  did 
not  care  for  the  position,  so  gave  it  up.  19.  She 
beats  the  mixture  till  smooth.  20.  Why  is  it  that  so 
many  more  study  French  than  Latin?  21.  We  stopped 
to  get  some  gasoline  and  oil  up.  22.  I  had  great  fun 
driving  the  horse  from  the  top  of  the  hay-load.  23.  The 
training  squad  needs  but  outdoor  practice  to  develop  it 


252  RHETORIC  IN  PRACTICE 

into  as  promising  a  squad  as  the  school  has  had  for  years, 
and  from  which  can  be  picked  a  winning  team.  24.  If 
the  seams  of  your  gloves  hurt  you,  turn  inside  out.  25. 
Clean  the  meat  thoroughly,  then  roll  in  flour.  26.  Do 
not  forget  forty  pounds  is  the  limit  of  man's  pack.  More 
is  making  a  pack-mule  of  him.  27.  Saturday  is  better 
than  any  day  In  the  week.  28.  There  were  twenty  posts, 
with  a  space  of  ten  feet  between  each.  29.  We  went  to 
pick  flowers  and  fish.  30.  The  reader  is  shown  first  an 
English  forest,  then  a  Saxon  home,  from  there  to  tourna- 
ment grounds  near  a  small  town,  then  to  the  home  of  a 
wealthy  Jew. 


EXERCISE  165 

Revise  the  following  sentences,  supplying  neces- 
sary words. 

I.  The  captain  said  that  while  the  steamer  was  In  the 
ice  track  the  weather  became  cold  enough  to  wear  an 
overcoat.  2.  The  second  year,  each  lad  must  kill,  either 
with  his  arrow  or  spear,  an  antelope  and  many  other  dif- 
ficult feats.  3.  These  facts  do  not,  and  ought  not  In  any 
way,  lessen  our  sense  of  Indebtedness.  4.  Sometimes  the 
chair  is  mounted  upon  two  slightly  curved  pieces  of  wood 
so  that  it  will  rock  to  and  fro  when  desired.  5.  Macau- 
lay's  style  is  very  different  from  other  authors  we  have 
studied.  6.  His  opinion  Is  very  much  taken  In  affairs  of 
state,  having  read  the  Sunday  papers  for  the  last  half  cen- 
tury. 7.  The  grove  Is  a  nice  place  to  picnic.  8.  He 
likes  the  first  better  than  any  in  the  lot.  9.  I  then  drop 
the  corn  mixture  by  tablespoonfuls  into  the  hot  fat,  and 


CLEARNESS  THROUGH  COHERENCE     253 

fry  like  eggs,  turning  over  when  one  side  Is  a  golden 
brown.  10.  He  looked  for  some  place  to  sleep.  11.  I 
always  have,  and  always  shall  be,  glad  to  serve  you.  12. 
The  little  canary  took  the  journey  with  us;  please  thank 
John  for  sending  us  the  cage  to  travel  in.  13.  Lord 
North's  plan  and  Burke's  are  in  some  respects  similar 
and  dissimilar.  14.  Drawn  up  on  the  beach  were  two 
boats  used  by  the  fishermen  to  row  ashore  when  they  go 
home  at  night.  15.  This  being  the  only  park  of  its  kind 
in  the  city,  will  be  greatly  appreciated.  16.  The  title  is 
Uncle  Tom's  Cabin,  by  Mrs.  Stowe.  17.  The  tribes- 
man learns,  also  the  use  of  weapons,  tanning  of  hides, 
dressing  of  the  meat,  and  other  useful  things.  18.  This 
is  a  book  that  will  be  read  by  generations  to  come  as  well 
as  those  gone  by. 

EXERCISE  166 

Combine  each  group  into  a  single  sentence  free 
from  unnecessary  words. 

I.  Among  the  country  schoolhouses  which  I  have  seen, 
this  one  in  particular  pleased  me.  This  schoolhouse 
stood  at  the  foot  of  a  long  hill.  It  was  made  of  wood  and 
was  painted  white.  It  had  green  blinds.  2.  My  dwell- 
ing, which  consisted  of  a  somewhat  shaky  cabin,  was  situ- 
ated on  a  little  rise  of  ground.  The  cabin  consisted  of 
but  one  room  with  but  little  furniture.  3.  In  the  center 
is  a  wreath.  From  this  wreath  come  strings.  These 
strings  are  made  of  paper  cut  Into  fancy  shapes.  They 
extend  from  the  wreath  to  each  corner  of  the  window. 
This  arrangement  makes  the  window  look  pretty.  4. 
They  divide  the  crowd.     Brutus  takes  one  section  and 


254  RHETORIC  IN  PRACTICE 

Casslus  the  other.  5.  Two  elderly  ladles  live  In  a  house 
in  the  city.  The  house,  which  is  a  rambling  wooden 
structure,  is  older  than  its  inhabitants.  6.  To  the  south 
lies  lofty  Mt.  Sunapee,  2700  feet  high.  To  the  west 
lies  Mt.  Kearsarge,  2300  feet  high.  Both  are  surrounded 
by  many  foothills.  7.  This  house  has  many  windows. 
Each  has  twenty-four  panes  of  glass,  small  and  square. 
8.  The  Pequots  were  the  most  warlike  Indians  of  New 
England.  They  were  settled  in  the  southeast  part  of 
what  is  now  Connecticut.  9.  Charles  Lamb  was  con- 
temporary with  Wordsworth  and  Coleridge.  He  was 
born  in  1775  and  he  died  in  1834. 


EXERCISE  167 

The  principal  members  of  the  AND  group  of  con- 
nectives are  TOO,  also,  likewise,  besides,  fur- 
thermore, MOREOVER,  AGAIN,  IN  ADDITION  TO 
this,  in  like  manner.  Select  from  this  list  a 
word  or  a  phrase  for  each  dash  in  the  following 
sentences.  Try  not  to  use  the  same  expression 
twice. 

I.  He  promised  us  a  cottage  free  of  charge,  and  the 
use  of  a  boat  too.  he  said  we  might  help  our- 
selves to  his  corn  and  potatoes.  2.  The  guide  crossed  the 
fissure  by  crawling  cautiously  along  a  decayed  log  which 
threatened    every    moment    to    give    way    beneath    him. 

every  member  of  his  party  reached  the  other  side 

in  safety.     3.  I  think  we  had  better  return  at  once,  for 
it  looks  like  rain.    we  promised  to  be  back  before 


CLEARNESS  THROUGH  COHERENCE     255 

dark,  and  it  is  now  after  six  o'clock.  4.  Apples  are  in- 
deed a  wholesome  fruit;  no  one  will  deny  that.  Cher- 
ries    are  excellent.     But  give  me  peaches,  if  you 

please.  5.  Think  of  the  fun  we  shall  have  in  camp, 
cooking  our  own  meals,  washing  our  own  dishes,  and  all 

that.     Think of  the  poor  fellows  who  never  get 

an  outing.  6.  Our  opponents  may  claim  that  in  a  small 
college  one  forms  closer  friendships  with  his  classmates. 

they  may  maintain  that  in  the  smaller  institution 

one  comes  immediately  under  the  professors  and  is  not 
entrusted  to  tutors.  7.  I  think  the  girls  did  exceedingly 
well,  if  we  consider  that  they  were  younger  than  their 

opponents.     We    should    remember    that    their 

strongest  debater  was  unable  to  be  present.  8.  Consider, 
if  you   please,   that   our   task   was   exceedingly   difficult. 

Consider  that  we  were   inexperienced.     9.  We 

furnished  them  shelter  for  the  night,  and  in  the  morn- 
ing a  hearty  breakfast.     we  supplied  them  with 

money  enough  to  take  them  back  home. 


EXERCISE  168 

The  principal  members  of  the  BUT  group  are 
YET,  STILL,  NEVERTHELESS,  HOWEVER,  FOR  ALL 
THAT,  ON  THE  CONTRARY,  AT  THE  SAME  TIME,  ON 
THE  OTHER  HAND.  Select  from  this  list  a  word  or 
a  phrase  for  each  dash  in  the  following  sentences. 
Try  not  to  use  the  same  expression  twice. 

I.  Janet  is  not  a  brilliant  girl,  and  much  of  her  time 

is  given  to  home  duties;  she  is  so  persevering 

that  I  think  she  may  win  the  scholarship  prize.     2.  We 


256  RHETORIC  IN  PRACTICE 

stated  our  case  and  asked  him  to  help  us,  but  it  was  of 

no  use.     He  did  agree  to  try  to  Interest  others 

in  our  cause.     3.  There  are,  it  must  be  admitted,  serious 

obstacles  in  our  way,  and  we  may  fail  altogether ;  

let  us  try,  and  try  hard.  4.  In  autumn,  when  the  young 
birds  have  flown,  you  can  collect  many  nests  and  study 

their    beautiful   workmanship;   pray    keep   your 

hands  off  them  while  they  are  in  use,  for  it  is  neither 
kind  nor  polite  to  meddle.  5.  It  rained  almost  contin- 
uously throughout  the  day,  the  wind  was  cold,  and  the 

work  disagreeable.     no  one  uttered  a  word  of 

complaint.  6.  Do  you  fancy  that  Gaytown  is  an  ugly 
little    village    with    shabby    stores    and    ill-kept    streets? 

it  is  as  pretty  a  place  as  one  cares  to  see.     7.  To 

be  sure,  your  garden  is  ruined,  and  I  cannot  blame  you 

for    feeling    provoked;    you    should    remember 

that  the  mischief-makers  were  very  little  fellows  and 
did  not  realize  what  grief  they  would  cause  you.  8.  An 
automobile  never  shies,  never  gets  tired,  never  gets  sick. 

A  horse  is  thoroughly  unreliable,  "  a  vain  thing 

for  safety."  9.  Of  course  it  is  laughable  that  w^e  hunted 
through  meadow  after  meadow,   and  at  last  found   the 

plant  growing  in  our  own  back  yard;  who  ever 

would  have  thought  of  looking  there  for  it! 


EXERCISE  169 

The    principal    members    of    the    THEREFORE 
group  are  consequently,  accordingly,  thus, 

THEN,  so,  hence,  AS  A  RESULT,  AS  A  CONSE- 
QUENCE. Invent  pairs  of  sentences,  in  each  case 
introducing  the  second  sentence  by  some  member 


CLEARNESS  THROUGH  COHERENCE    257 

of  the  THEREFORE  group.  Try  to  use  every 
member. 

The  principal  members  of  the  THEN  GROUP  are 

PRESENTLY,  MEANWHILE,  THEREUPON,  EVENTU- 
ALLY, TO  CONCLUDE,  THEREAFTER,  INCIDENT- 
ALLY, TO  CROWN  ALL.  Invent  two  or  three  short 
paragraphs,  using  in  each  as  many  of  the  above 
terms  as  you  can  conveniently. 


EXERCISE  170 

Supply  an  appropriate  word  or  phrase  for  each 
dash  in  the  following  sentences. 

I.  After  dinner  we  went  to  the  music-room,  where  Mary 

and  Helen  entertained  us  by  playing  duets.  a 

most   delightful   evening  was   spent.     2.  Success   in   life 

does  not  always  mean  accumulated  wealth;  here 

in  America,  we  are  told,  it  is  coming  to  mean  that.  3.  In 
schools  and  colleges  we  do  not  find   education  without 

athletics;    it    has    frequently    been    shown    that 

the  exaltation  of  one  weakens  the  power  of  the  other. 
4.  Some  are  inclined  to  think  that  exercise  is  unimpor- 
tant;   Addison  says  that,  were  not  exercise  abso- 
lutely necessary  for  our  well-being,  nature  would  not 
have  made  the  body  so  proper  for  it.     5.  The  sun  came 

out, the  man  felt  warm took  ofiE  his  coat. 

6.  A  Spaniard  was  riding  through  a  barren  country  when 

his  horse  fell  lame.     He  was  in  dismay  he  spied 

an  Indian  coming  toward  him  on  a  fresh  horse.  7. 
Owing  to  recent  storms  no  fish  could  be  had  for  the 
feast.     On  the  eventful  morning  a  poor  fisher- 


258  RHETORIC  IN  PRACTICE 

man  came  to  the  gate  carrying  a  large  turbot.     8.  Isaac 

stumbles  and  falls;  Wamba  jumps  forward  and 

triumphantly  waves  his  wooden  sword. 


EXERCISE  171 

Improve  the  following  sentences  by  substituting 
better  words  or  phrases  for  the  words  italicized. 

I.  Reluctantly  the  king  ordered  his  servants  to  whip 
the  little  boy,  and  to  lay  the  blows  on  lightly.  2.  During 
the  summer  he  enjoyed  a  pleasant  outing  as  well  as  earn- 
ing a  little  money.  3.  The  athlete  feels  defeat  like  a  sol- 
dier does  who  has  lost  a  battle.  4.  Determined  to  get  the 
man's  cloak,  the  wind  blew  harder  and  harder;  and  the 
traveler  merely  wrapt  it  the  closer  about  him.  5.  Won 
by  flattery,  I  consented  to  turn  the  grindstone;  and  long 
before  the  scythe  was  sharp  I  felt  sorry  that  I  had  agreed 
to  help  him.  6.  Better  keep  your  wood  dry  by  stacking 
it  under  a  tree ;  and  should  rain  fall,  it  will  remain  fairly 
dry.  7.  The  Spaniard  asked  the  Indian  to  exchange 
horses,  and  the  Indian  refused;  and  the  Spaniard  forced 
him  to  do  it.  8.  The  prisoner  did  not  dare  to  hesitate; 
and  he  answered  promptly,  "  The  left  eye,  sir."  9.  I 
watched  for  several  minutes  and  to  my  surprise  I  saw  the 
muskrat  reappear.  10.  At  last  the  Wind  gave  it  \x^,as  he 
saw  that  it  was  of  no  use  to  blow  any  longer.  11.  It 
taught  me  a  good  lesson,  because  after  that  I  used  greater 
care.  12.  The  snow  was  knee  deep  but  I  went  to  school; 
but  I  had  to  turn  back,  as  there  was  no  session  that  day 
on  account  of  the  storm.  13.  A  traveler  came  along  just 
then,  and  the  Wind  said,  "  I  will  make  him  take  off  his 


CLEARNESS  THROUGH  COHERENCE      259 

coat."  14.  He  thought  he  was  not  strong  enough  for 
the  mile  run,  and  entered  the  half-mile.  15.  The  reason 
for  the  postponement  was  because  it  was  very  stormy. 
16.  I  took  the  seven-fifteen  train  from  Hartford  and  due 
in  New  Haven  about  eight  forty-five.  17.  Many  objec- 
tions are  raised  against  this  plan.  18.  They  procured  him 
a  pension  of  three  hundred  pounds  which  besides  his  pri- 
vate means  made  him  well  off.  19.  Most  of  the  trees 
are  birches,  and  there  are  a  few  pines.  20.  It  looked  like 
some  one  had  capsized. 


CHAPTER  XIX 
CLEARNESS  THROUGH  PUNCTUATION 

Even  though  perfectly  adjusted  part  to  part, 
each  word  in  its  proper  place,  a  sentence  may  lack 
clearness  and  force  because  incorrectly  punctuated. 
Commas,  semicolons,  and  the  other  points  are  as 
necessary  to  the  written  or  printed  page  as  are 
pauses,  gestures,  facial  expression,  and  voice  em- 
phasis to  oral  discourse.  They  aid  the  reader  to 
see  at  a  glance  what  words  should  be  taken  to- 
gether; they  point  out  relationship.  Often  the 
entire  meaning  of  a  sentence  is  controlled  by  a 
single  punctuation  mark. 

Periods,  exclamation  points,  and  interrogation 
points,  most  commonly  found  at  sentence-ends, 
rarely  give  trouble.  The  apostrophe,  indicating 
possession  and  contraction,  presents  no  difficulty, 
though  it  is  frequently  misused  through  careless- 
ness. The  troublesome  points  are  the  comma,  the 
semicolon,  the  colon,  and  quotation  marks.  To 
use  these  points  effectively  requires  no  little  skill. 
The  rules  which  follow  do  not  cover  all  cases,  yet 
they  furnish  a  fairly  complete  working  equipment. 
They  should  be  mastered. 

260 


CLEARNESS  THROUGH  PUNCTUATION    261 

/ 

I.  Use  the  period  after  a  complete  declarative  or 
imperative  sentence. 

Be  careful  not  to  treat  a  phrase  or  a  clause  as 
if  it  were  a  complete  sentence.  The  following,  for 
example,  is  incorrectly  punctuated.  We  made 
Charles  our  captain.  He  being  by  far  the  best 
player.  This  should  read  We  made  Charles  our 
captain,  he  being  by  far  the  best  player.  Be  equally 
careful  not  to  run  sentences  together.  The  tempta- 
tion to  make  this  error  Is  especially  great  when  the 
second  of  two  sentences  begins  with  a  pronoun  re- 
ferring to  a  substantive  In  the  first.  It  Is  Incorrect 
to  write  Charles  makes  a  good  captain,  he  is  our 
best  player  and  the  fellows  respect  him.  A  period 
should  take  the  place  of  the  comma  after  captain. 
(See  Exercises  150  and  151,  pages  223-26.) 

II.  Avoid  placing  a  punctuation  mark  of  any  kind 
between  such  parts  of  a  sentence  as  are  closely  re- 
lated and  are  in  their  natural  grammatical  order. 

For  example,  avoid  separating  a  subject  from 
Its  predicate,  a  verb  from  Its  complement,  a  prepo- 
sition from  Its  object,  an  adjective  from  the  noun 
It  modifies  when  the  adjective  immediately  pre- 
cedes the  noun,  an  adverb  from  the  adjective  it 
modifies  when  the  adverb  immediately  precedes  the 
adjective.  If  the  subject  of  a  sentence  Is  extremely 
long  and  complex,  or  if  it  ends  with  a  verb,  a 
comma  may  be  needed  to  aid  the  reader  to  see  at 
once  where  the  predicate  begins ;  but  such  cases  are 
rare. 


262  RHETORIC  IN  PRACTICE 

III.  If  the  terms  of  a  series  are  all  in  the  same 
construction  and  are  not  joined  by  conjunctions, 
the  comma  should  be  used  to  separate  them.  If 
only  the  last  two  are  joined  by  a  conjunction,  the 
comma  should  be  used  regardless  of  the  connective. 

The  series  may  consist  of  a  number  of  nouns 
all  subjects  of  the  same  verb,  a  number  of  verbs 
having  a  common  subject,  a  number  of  modifiers 
(adjectives,  adverbs,  phrases,  or  clauses)  modify- 
ing the  same  word.  It  may  consist  of  the  clauses 
of  a  compound  sentence,  and  occasionally  of  a 
number  of  short,  closely  related  independent  state- 
ments. The  important  thing  to  remember  is  that 
the  terms  separated  must  be  in  what  may  be  called 
parallel  construction.    Here  are  illustrations. 

Morning,  afternoon,  and  evening  slipped  away. 

I  arose  softly,  slipped  on  my  clothes,  and  opened  the 
door  suddenly. 

I  came,  I  saw,  I  conquered. 

IV.  Use  the  comma  to  set  off  a  dependent  clause 
when  it  precedes  a  principal  clause. 

Notice  that  the  rule  has  to  do  with  clauses,  not 
with  phrases.  Seldom  Is  It  necessary  to  set  off  a 
phrase  even  when  It  stands  first  In  a  sentence,  un- 
less the  phrase  Is  participial.  Occasionally  It  be- 
comes necessary  to  set  off  an  Introductory  adverb. 
No  rule  can  be  framed  to  cover  all  cases,  but  the 
underlying  principle  Is  clear.  When  the  comma 
is  really  needed  to  show  at  a  glance  where  the 
dependent  element  leaves  off  and  the  principal  ele- 
ment begins.  It  should  be  used. 


CLEARNESS  THROUGH  PUNCTUATION    263 

As  he  was  passing  by,  the  door  opened  suddenly. 

Being  admonished,  let  us  follow  better  things. 

To  be  sure,  there  are  exceptions  to  most  rules. 

Thus  done  the  tales,  to  bed  they  creep. 

In  the  beginning  God  created  the  heavens  and  the  earth. 

V.  Use  the  comma  to  set  off  non-restrictive 
phrases  and  clauses. 

A  phrase  or  clause  is  restrictive  when  It  narrows 
or  closely  defines  what  it  modifies ;  or  when  it  picks 
out  one  thing  from  among  several,  as  do  the  words 
this  and  that.  Removing  a  restrictive  word-group 
changes  the  meaning  of  the  sentence  In  which  It 
occurs.  A  non-restrlctlve  word-group  contains  an 
additional  statement,  explanatory  or  Incidental. 
The  sentence  does  not  change  materially  when  a 
non-restrlctlve  phrase  or  clause  Is  removed.  For 
example,  In  the  statement  The  greatest  man  is  he 
who  does  not  lose  his  child's  heart,  the  relative 
clause  Is  restrictive.  Remove  the  clause,  and  the 
sentence  becomes  meaningless.  In  the  statement 
Affliction,  like  an  iron-smith,  shapes  as  it  strikes, 
the  phrase  like  an  iron-smith  Is  non-restrlctlve ;  the 
meaning  Is  clear  even  when  the  phrase  is  removed. 
Here  are  further  Illustrations. 

He  who  strives  should  win.     (restrictive) 

Bruce,  who  had  failed  many  times,  finally  succeeded, 
(non-restrictive) 

The  station  which  Nelson  had  chosen  was  some  fifty 
miles  to  the  west  of  Cadiz,     (restrictive) 

The  storm,  which  by  noon  had  spent  its  fury,  entirely 
disappeared  before  dusk.       (non-restrictive) 


264  RHETORIC  IN  PRACTICE 

VI.  Use  the  comma  to  set  off  words  or  word- 
groups  when  they  interrupt  the  thought  or  the 
grammatical  order. 

This  rule,  necessarily  vague  and  covering  many 
cases,  should  not  be  followed  blindly;  the  writer 
must  use  judgment.  Some  interruptions  are  so 
slight  that  they  do  not  call  for  punctuation ;  others 
need  careful  attention.  The  Interruption  may  be 
caused  by  words  coming  between  subject  and  pred- 
icate, or  between  a  verb  and  Its  complement.  It 
may  consist  of  words  Independent  by  address, 
a  word  or  phrase  in  apposition,  an  absolute 
phrase,  or  an  explanatory  phrase  Interrupting  a 
clause.  Among  brief  expressions  often,  though 
not  always,  used  parenthetically  are  too,  also, 
moreover,  indeed,  namely,  again,  no  doubt,  in 
short,  of  course,  consequently,  for  instance,  so  to 
speak,  in  truth. 

Most  rules,  to  be  sure,  have  their  exceptions. 

In  thee,  O  Lord,  do  I  put  my  trust. 

The  broken   soldier,   kindly  bade  to  stay, 
Sat  by  the  fire  and  talked  the  night  away. 

VII.  Avoid  placing  the  comma  before  WHEN, 
WHERE,  WHETHER,  IF,  or  THAT,  when  it  introduces 
an  object  clause.  But  place  the  comma  before  a  co- 
ordinate conjunction  (and,  but,  FOR,  AS,  be- 
cause, OR,  nor)  if  by  so  doing  you  can  make  the 
meaning  clearer. 

The  first  section  of  this  rule  is  covered  by  Rule 
II.;  for  since  the  verb  and  its  object  are  closely 


CLEARNESS  THROUGH  PUNCTUATION    265 

related  parts,  nothing  Is  gained  by  separating  them. 
The  reason  underlying  the  second  section  rests  In 
the  fact  that  some  words  are  used  now  as  prepo- 
sitions, now  as  conjunctions;  and  in  the  fact  that 
coordinate  conjunctions  sometimes  join  single 
words,  sometimes  clauses.  It  Is  therefore  neces- 
sary, at  times,  to  place  a  comma  before  a  conjunc- 
tion In  order  to  show  that  It  Is  not  a  preposition, 
or  to  show  that  the  conjunction  Introduces  not  a 
single  word  but  a  clause.  That  Is,  the  comma 
prevents  the  reader  from  hurrying  on  too  rapidly; 
It  shows  him  the  relationship  of  that  which  fol- 
lows to  that  which  precedes.  Notice  carefully  the 
following  sentences.  If  the  comma  were  omitted 
in  the  last  four,  the  rapid  reader  might,  for  a 
moment,  miss  the  meaning. 

He  said  that  all  was  ready. 

Please  ask  him  when  we  may  come. 

He  liked  none,  but  the  first  and  last  of  the  songs  pleased 
me  exceedingly. 

We  ran  as  fast  as  we  could,  for  the  boat  left  promptly 
at  five. 

For  supper  we  had  bread  and  jam,  and  nothing  else 
could  have  pleased  us  more. 

In  this  room  were  twenty-five  seats,  and  two  long 
benches  up  in  front  where  the  children  sat  when  reciting. 

i^VIII.  Use  the  semicolon  as  if  it  were  a  large 
comma,  to  separate  phrases  or  clauses  in  the  same 
construction  when  they  are  exceptionally  long,  or 
when  one  or  both  are  so  broken  by  commas  that, 


266  RHETORIC  IN  PRACTICE 

were  not  the  semicolon  used,  the  eye  would  not 
readily  perceive  where  one  phrase  or  clause  ends 
and  the  next  begins. 

Notice  carefully  that  the  word-groups  separated 
must  be  in  the  same  construction;  for  the  semi- 
colon should  not  be  used  to  separate  a  principal 
clause  from  a  dependent.  The  following  sen- 
tences, though  long  and  somewhat  complicated,  are 
clear  because  the  semicolon  shows  at  a  glance 
where  each  term  of  a  series  ends. 

There  was  the  honest  cock  robin,  the  favorite  game  of 
stripling  sportsmen,  with  its  loud,  querulous  note;  and  the 
twittering  blackbirds,  flying  in  sable  clouds;  and  the 
golden-winged  woodpecker,  with  his  crimson  crest,  his 
broad  black  gorget,  and  splendid  plumage;  and  the  cedar- 
bird,  with  its  red-tipt  wings  and  yellow-tipt  tail  and  its 
little  monteiro  cap  of  feathers;  and  the  blue  jay,  that 
noisy  coxcomb,  in  his  gay  light-blue  coat  and  white 
underclothes,  screaming  and  chattering,  bobbing  and  nod- 
ding and  bowing,  and  pretending  to  be  on  good  terms 
with  every  songster  of  the  grove. 

If,  then,  the  removal  of  the  causes  of  this  spirit  of 
American  liberty  be,  for  the  greater  part,  or  rather  en- 
tirely, impracticable;  if  the  ideas  of  criminal  process  be 
inapplicable,  or  if  inapplicable  are  in  the  highest  degree 
inexpedient,  what  way  remains? 

IX.  Use  the  semicolon  as  if  it  were  a  small  pe- 
riod, placing  it  between  independent  statements  so 
closely  related  in  thought  that  it  is  undesirable  to 
separate  them  with  a  period. 

This  is  a  dangerous  rule  for  young  writers,  for 


CLEARNESS  THROUGH  PUNCTUATION    267 

their  tendency  is  to  use  the  semicolon  too  freely. 
When  in  doubt  whether  a  semicolon  or  a  period 
is  the  proper  point,  use  the  period;  when  hesitating 
between  a  comma  and  a  period,  use  the  latter. 
Here  are  examples. 

Burke's  plan  was  simple,  direct,  sure;  Lord  North's 
was  complex,  indirect,  and  uncertain. 

I  am  her  kinsman ;  let  me,  therefore,  avenge  her  wrong. 

If  fortune  favors  you,  do  not  be  elated;  if  she  frowns, 
do  not  despair. 

X.  Use  the  colon  after  AS  FOLLOWS,  THE  FOL- 
LOWING, IN  THE  FOLLOWING  MANNER^  THUS, 
THIS,  THESE,  and  similar  expressions,  when  they 
introduce  quotations,  enumerations,  or  explana- 
tions. Namely,  for  instance,  for  example, 
and  THAT  IS,  when  introducing  enumerations  or 
explanations,  are  almost  always  preceded  by  the 
semicolon  and  followed  by  the  comma. 

Notice  the  following  examples. 

In  the  closing  paragraph  are  found  these  words:  "  Gen- 
tlemen, let  us  ever  remember  that  our  interest  is  in  con- 
cord, not  conflict;  and  that  our  real  eminence  rests  in 
the  victories  of  peace,  not  those  of  war." 

The  five  simple  colors  are  these:  red,  orange,  yellow, 
green,  blue,  and  violet. 

There  are  many  shades  of  blue;  for  example,  robin's- 
egg,  turquoise,  gobelin,  and  cyan. 

XI.  Use  quotation  marks  to  enclose  a  direct  quo- 
tation. 


268  RHETORIC  IN  PRACTICE 

This  is  the  general  rule,  related  to  which  are  a 
number  of  minor  ones.  These  must  be  examined 
with  care. 

1 .  Be  sure  that  the  words  enclosed  are  the  exact 
words  of  the  person  quoted.  It  is  wrong,  for  ex- 
ample, to  write  He  said  '^  that  he  would  come  to- 
morrow!^ Either  the  quotation  marks  should  be 
removed  or  the  sentence  changed  to  read  He  said, 
''  /  will  come  to-morrow!' 

2.  When  a  quoted  sentence  is  interrupted  by  a 
parenthetical  expression  such  as  said  he,  two  pairs 
of  quotation  marks  are  needed,  one  for  each  sec- 
tion. The  first  word  of  the  second  section  should 
not  begin  with  a  capital,  unless  it  is  a  proper  noun 
or  the  pronoun  I.  Example :  ''  This,'^  said  he,  ^'  is 
most  fortunate!' 

3.  //  the  quotation  consists  of  a  number  of  sen- 
tences, all  by  the  same  person,  do  not  place  marks 
before  and  after  each  sentence,  but  simply  before 
the  first  and  after  the  last.  If  the  quotation  con- 
sists of  several  paragraphs,  all  by  the  same  person, 
place  marks  before  each  one,  but  after  the  last  one 
only. 

4.  Use  single  marks  to  set  of  a  quotation  within 
a  quotation.  Example :  '^  /  think,''  he  replied, 
''  that  it  was  Pope  who  said  '  To  err  is  human!  " 

5.  When  reporting  an  extended  conversation — 
something  more  than  a  brief  anecdote,  indicate  by 
means  of  indention  where  one  speaker  concludes 
and  another  begins. 

6.  Never  use  a  semicolon  after  the  words  intrO' 


CLEARNESS  THROUGH  PUNCTUATION    269 

ducing  a  quotation.  If  the  passage  is  long  and  for- 
mal, it  may  he  preceded  hy  a  colon;  if  short,  a 
comma  is  sufficient.     See  Rule  IX. 


EXERCISE  172 

Keeping  Rule  I.  in  mind,  prove  that  each  of  the 
following  is  incorrectly  punctuated. 

I.  Please  come,  if  you  cannot,  let  me  know  by  Monday./ 
#2.  Convention  day  means  two  things  to  me.     First,  an 
extra  nap  in  the  morning;  second,  an  opportunity  to  prac- 
tice what  I  have  learned  in  the  domestic  science  course. 
3.  I  found  my  maid  Katie  there,  she  had  come  earlier  in  \/ 
the  morning  and  had  put  everything  in  order.     4.  Re-  5 
membering  my  promise  to  come  home  early,  1  started  on 
a  run  for  the  cottage.     My  companions  calling  after  me, 
"  'Fraid-cat!  "    ^  The  college  catalogue  will  tell  you  alW 
about  it,  why  not  send  for  one?     6.  Leaving  his  com-j/ 
panions  at  the  door,  he  entered  a  high-vaulted  hall.     At 
the   further   end   of  which   he  saw,   seated   high  on   his 
throne,  the  king.     7.  The  two  plans  differ  widely.     One^' 
being   mild,   simple,    reasonable,    the   other   being   harsh, 
complicated,  unreasonable.     8.  When  in  trouble,  rub  this 
ring,  it  has  magic  powers.     9*  She  told  how  Uther  had 
coveted  a  field  belonging  to  her  husband.     How,  when 
gold  was  proffered  and  refused,  Uther  took  the  field  by 
force.  MO.  Through  the  center  of  the  room  ran  a  long,  -.' 
solid  table,  about  which  were  seated  some  two-score  men. 
Large  men  with  long  hair  and  rudely  clad.     11.  I  like  n/ 
this  author  very  much,  his  works  are  clear  and  interesting. 
12,  The  storm,  after  raging  violently  for  several  hours, 


270  RHETORIC  IN  PRACTICE 

at  length  died  down.     Which  gave  us  an  opportunity  to 
0  hurry  home.     13.  We  asked  Clarke  to  take  the  lead.    He 
^  being  acquainted  with  the  trail.     14.  Tilton,  our  half- 
*^back,  excelled  in  speed  and  in  strength  too.     While  Far- 
A  rel,  his  opponent,  excelled  in  judgment  and  nerve.     15.  At 
last  a  vote  was  taken.     The  result  proving  beyond  ques- 
tion that  Meredith  was  the  favorite.     16.  We  were  In 
doubt  regarding  which  of  the  roads  was  the  better,  one 
was  sandy  yet  level,  the  other  hilly.     17.  I  am  sure  you 
will  like  the  book,  It  Is  one  of  the  most  Interesting  I  have 
read  this  year. 


EXERCISE  173 

Prove  that  Rule  II.  is  violated  in  each  of  the 
following. 

I.  We  walked  down  a  narrow,  dingy,  poorly  paved, 
alley.  2.  The  window  contained  many  toys,  such  as, 
tops,  marbles,  and  building-blocks,  y  The  speakers  on 
the  affirmative  were,  John  Clarke  and  Edwin  Mitchell. 
4.  That  he  could  work  as  well  as  play,  was  soon  dis- 
covered. X^.  Finally  he  said,  that  If  Saturday  should 
prove  stormy  we  might  go  the  following  Monday.  6. 
He  politely  requested,  that  the  boys  make  less  noise.  7. 
Here  comes  my  long,  lost  dog.  8.  Our  shopping  kept  us 
busy  for  hours;  so  we  were  obliged  to  take  a  late,  after- 
noon train.  ^  Twelve,  sturdy,  lads  at  once  volunteered. 
10.  His  purpose  In  doing  this  was,  to  show  that  he  bore 
us  no  ill  win. 


CLEARNESS  THROUGH  PUNCTUATION    271 

EXERCISE  174 

Punctuate  the  following,  keeping  in  mind  Rule 
III. 

I.  God  can  change  the  lowest  to  the  highest  abase  the 
proud  and  raise  the  humble,  jk  Reading  maketh  a  full 
man  conference  a  ready  man  and  writing  an  exact  man. 
3.  The  force  the  size  and  the  weight  of  our  vessel  bore 
her  down  beneath  the  waves.  4.  He  beheld  something 
huge  misshapen  black  and  towering.  5.  There  was  a 
sloping  lawn  a  fine  stream  at  the  foot  of  it  and  a  tract  of 
park  beyond.  6r  They  kept  up  the  Christmas  carol  sent 
true-love-knots  on  Valentine's  morning  ate  pancakes  on 
Shrovetide  showed  their  wit  on  the  first  of  April  and 
religiously  cracked  nuts  on  Michaelmas  eve.  7.  The 
narrator  was  a  pleasant  shabby  gentlemanly  fellow  in 
pepper-and-salt  clothes.  ^  Everybody  has  his  own  the- 
ater, in  which  he  is  manager  actor  prompter  playwright 
sceneshifter  boxkeeper  doorkeeper,  all  in  one,  and  audi- 
ence into  the  bargain.  9.  That  he  could  not  reason  that 
he  had  no  wit  no  humor  no  eloquence  is  apparent  from 
his  writings. 

10.  The  days  are  cold  the  nights  are  long 
The  north  wind  sings  a  doleful  song. 

EXERCISE  175 

Punctuate  the  following,  keeping  in  mind  Rules 
IV,  and  V, 

V.  If  time  is  precious  no  book  that  will  not  improve  by 
repeated  readings  deserves  to  be  read  at  all  declares  Car- 


272  RHETORIC  IN  PRACTICE 

lyle.  2.  Arriving  in  the  city  about  seven  in  the  evening 
we  drove  to  the  nearest  hotel.  3.  My  friend  proposed 
that  we  should  alight  and  walk  through  the  park  to  the 
hall  which  was  at  no  great  distance.  4.  In  the  center 
of  the  road  stood  an  enormous  tulip  tree  which  towered 
like  a  giant  above  all  the  other  trees  of  the  neighborhood 
and  formed  a  kind  of  landmark.  %f  The  station  which 
Nelson  had*  chosen  was  some  fifty  miles  to  the  west  of 
Cadiz  near  Cape  St.  Mary's.  6.  While  he  watched  a 
beggar  limped  by.  7.  As  you  know  the  earth  turns  on 
its  axis  once  a  day.  8.  Under  the  new  rules  a  letter 
weighing  not  over  one-half  an  ounce  was  carried  any  dis- 
tance under  three  hundred  miles  for  five  cents.  9.  You  do 
so  well  in  many  ways  that  I  wish  you  might  do  still  better. 
10.  Gregory's  is  a  little  village  situated  on  a  hill  at  the 
northern  extremity  of  the  lake.  11.  Gregory's  situated 
on  a  hill  at  the  northern  extremity  of  the  lake  is  a  little 
village,  ite'.  The  night  before  he  had  said  that  there 
was  no  danger.  13.  By  daring  great  fears  are  concealed. 
14.  When  a  fish  is  nibbling  the  float  goes  under  the  sur- 
face of  the  water.  15.  The  room  was  paneled  with 
cornices  of  heavy  carved  work  in  which  flowers  and  gro- 
tesque faces  were  strangely  mingled  and  a  row  of  black- 
looking  portraits  stared  mournfully  at  me  from  the  walls. 


EXERCISE  176 

Punctuate  such  of  the  following  as  need  punc- 
tuation, keeping  in  mind  Rules  IV.  and  V. 

I.  He  was  a  man  free  from  all  perfidy.     2.  Read  care- 
fully what  you  write  to  make  sure  that  everything  is  clear. 


CLEARNESS  THROUGH  PUNCTUATION    273 

3.  If  you  wish  to  reach  the  highest  begin  at  the  lowest. 

4.  Glory  follows  virtue  as  if  it  were  its  shadow,  if: 
Next  comes  the  monk  riding  a  fine  white  horse  and  wear- 
ing a  gown  the  sleeves  of  which  are  edged  with  fur.  ^ 
He  was  asked  to  take  the  place  of  the  third  runner  who 
had  sprained  his  knee.  7.  He  saw  the  walls  of  the 
church  dimly  glaring  under  the  trees  beyond.  8.  Comus 
offers  her  the  glass  which  she  refuses.  9.  As  we  rode 
along  the  air  became  cooler  and  more  bracing.  10.  In 
all  fifteen  fires  were  started.  11.  If  you  wish  another  to 
keep  your  secret  first  keep  it  yourself.  12.  While  we 
were  eating  the  clouds  began  to  gather.  13.  The  bind- 
ing is  black  with  red  corners.  14.  As  spring  came  on 
preparations  were  made  for  leaving  the  colony.  15.-  Not 
long  after  the  door  of  the  coach  was  thrown  open  and  a 
masked  robber  appeared.  16.  These  men  wrote  chron-, 
icles  homilies  and  lives  of  saints  all  in  Latin. 

17.  He  that  hath  light  within  his  own  clear  breast 
May  sit  i'  the  center  and  enjoy  bright  day 
But  he  that  hides  a  dark  soul  and  foul  thoughts 
Benighted  walks  under  the  mid-day  sun 
Himself  is  his  own  dungeon. — Milton 


EXERCISE  177 

Punctuate  such  of  the  following  as  need  punc- 
tuating.   Keep  in  mind  Rule  VI. 

I.  Grendel's  mother  however  sought  revenge.  2.  It  is 
I  am  sure  the  safest  plan.  3.  Please  sir  may  we  take 
your  boat?  4.  Scott  himself  could  not  have  done  better. 
5.  Sport  the  farmer's  collie  drove  the  sheep  down  the 


274  RHETORIC  IN  PRACTICE 

lane.  6.  The  greatest  of  faults  some  one  has  said  is  to 
be  conscious  of  none.  7.  His  wife  Calpurnia  tries  to 
dissuade  him.  8.  There  was  in  fact  nothing  that  could 
make  us  angry  with  the  world  or  with  each  other.  ^ 
Johnson  one  of  the  most  eminent  English  writers  of  the 
eighteenth  century  was  the  son  of  Michael  Johnson  who 
was  at  the  beginning  of  that  century  a  magistrate  of  Lich- 
field and  a  bookseller  of  great  note  in  the  midland  coun- 
ties. 10.  It  does  not  appear  that  these  two  men  the  most 
eminent  writer  of  the  generation  which  was  going  out  and 
the  most  eminent  writer  of  the  generation  which  was 
coming  in  ever  saw  each  other.  11.  Johnson  the  man 
is  more  interesting  than  Johnson  the  writer.  12.  Come 
said  he  let  us  be  going.  13.  O  father  Zeus  no  more 
shall  I  be  honored  among  gods  if  mortal  men  the  people 
of  Phaeacia  honor  me  not  though  men  of  my  own  kin. 


EXERCISE  178 
Punctuate,  keeping  in  mind  Rule  VII. 

«r.  So  spake  she  nor  did  the  father  of  gods  and  men 
disregard  her.  2.  His  conscience  troubled  him  for  in  his 
heart  were  several  lies — white  ones  but  lies  none  the  less. 
3.  The  Squire  would  sometimes  fall  asleep  in  the  most 
pathetic  part  of  my  sermon  and  his  lady  return  my  wife's 
civilities  with  a  mutilated  courtesy.  4.  Ichabod  endeav- 
ored to  dodge  the  missile  but  too  late.  5.  The  gates  of 
heaven  are  so  easily  found  when  w^e  are  little  and  they 
are  always  standing  open  to  let  children  wander  in.  6. 
Just  at  the  harbor's  head  a  leafy  olive  stands  and  near  it 
a  pleasant  darksome  cave  sacred   to  the  nymphs  called 


CLEARNESS  THROUGH  PUNCTUATION    275 

Nereids.  7.  Within  the  cave  are  bowls  and  jars  of  stone 
and  here  bees  hive  their  honey.  8.  We  had  been  back 
and  forth  across  the  lake  and  round  and  round  the  lake. 
9.  My  orchards  were  often  robbed  by  schoolboys  and 
my  wife's  custards  plundered  by  the  cats  or  the  children. 
j^  A  suit  of  mourning  has  transformed  my  coquette  into 
a  prude  and  a  new  set  of  ribbons  has  given  her  younger 
sister  more  than  natural  vivacity.  11.  The  pleasantest 
things  in  the  world  are  pleasant  thoughts  and  the  great 
art  in  life  is  to  have  as  many  of  them  as  possible. 
12.  The  winds  were  high  and  the  clouds  were  dark 
And  the  boat  returned  no  more. 


EXERCISE  179 

Punctuate,  keeping  in  mind  Rules  VIII.  and  IX. 

I.  If  fortune  favors  you  do  not  be  elated  if  she  frowns 
do  not  despair.  2.  The  world  is  not  yet  exhausted  let 
me  see  something  tomorrow  which  I  never  saw  before. 
3.  Not  a  limb  not  a  fiber  about  him  was  idle  and  to  have 
seen  his  loosely  hung  frame  in  full  motion  and  clattering 
about  the  room  you  would  have  thought  Saint  Vitas  him- 
self that  blessed  patron  of  the  dance  was  figuring  before 
you  in  person.  4.  Evil  manners  soil  a  fine  dress  more 
than  mud  good  manners  by  their  deeds  easily  adorn  a 
humble  garb.  ^.  To  have  a  great  man  for  an  intimate 
friend  seems  pleasant  to  those  who  have  never  tried  it 
those  who  have  fear  it.  6<  Words  convey  the  mental 
treasures  of  one  period  to  the  generations  that  follow  and 
laden  with  this  their  precious  freight  they  sail  safely 
across  gulfs  of  time  in  which  empires  have  suffered  ship- 
wreck and  the  languages  of  common  life  have  sunk  into 


276  RHETORIC  IN  PRACTICE 

oblivion.  7.  The  debaters  were  the  following:  affirm- 
ative Clarke  and  Edwards  negative  Partridge  and  Em- 
erson. 8.  Three  things  are  necessary:  first  a  sound  body 
second  a  good  mind  third  and  this  Is  most  Important  of 
all  a  good  character.  9.  He  reached  the  room  by  climb- 
ing a  ladder  then  drawing  up  the  ladder  he  shut  the  trap 
door  and  planted  his  chair  on  It.  10.  I  am  sure  It  was 
not  Henry  he  Is  too  generous  a  boy  to  do  such  a  deed. 
II.  We  must  go  now  It  will  soon  be  dark.  12.  No  harm 
was  Intended  we  were  simply  thoughtless.  13.  She  seized 
upon  the  warrior  and  clutched  him  with  her  horrid 
claws  nevertheless  she  did  no  harm  to  his  sound  body  for 
the  rigid  armor  girt  him  round  about  so  that  she  could 
not  pierce  the  byrnie  the  linked  coat  of  mail  with  her 
hateful  fingers.  14.  I  am  her  kinsman  let  me  right  the 
wrong.  15.  I  was  fatigued  with  traveling  rowing  and 
want  of  rest  I  was  very  hungry  and  my  whole  stock  of 
cash  consisted  of  a  Dutch  dollar  and  about  a  shilling  In  cop- 
per. 16.  The  school-house  being  deserted  soon  fell  to  decay 
and  was  reported  to  be  haunted  by  the  ghost  of  the  un- 
fortunate pedagogue  and  the  plowboy  loitering  home- 
ward of  a  still  summer  evening  has  often  fancied  his  voice 
at  a  distance  chanting  a  melancholy  psalm  tune  among 
the  tranquil  solitudes  of  Sleepy  Hollow. 

17.  The  curfew  tolls  the  knell  of  parting  day 

The  lowing  herd  winds  slowly  o'er  the  lea 
The  plowman  homeward  plods  his  weary  way 
And  leaves  the  world  to  darkness  and  to  mCo 

18.  Music  resembles  poetry  In  each 

Are  nameless  graces  which  no  methods  teach. 


CLEARNESS  THROUGH  PUNCTUATION    277 

EXERCISE  180 

Punctuate  the  following,  keeping  in  mind  Rule 
X.     Supply  capitals  where  they  are  needed, 

I.  There  are  five  simple  colors  red  orange  yellow 
green  blue  and  violet.  2.  The  five  simple  colors  are  red 
orange  yellow  green  blue  and  violet.  3.  There  are  five 
simple  colors  namely  red  orange  yellow  green  blue  and 
violet.  4.  The  five  simple  colors  are  as  follows  red 
orange  yellow  green  blue  and  violet.  ^  The  simple 
colors  are  these  red  orange  yellow  green  blue  and  violet. 
6.  The  recipe  for  rabbit  pie  begins  thus  first  catch  the 
rabbit.  7.  The  address  began  as  follows  there  are  three 
kinds  of  people  whom  I  like  men  women  and  children. 
8.  Our  reason  for  postponing  the  trip  was  this  the  roads 
owing  to  recent  rains  were  in  a  bad  state.  ^  The  hour 
was  spent  in  the  following  manner  first  we  wrote  for  ten 
minutes  on  some  familiar  topic  then  a  few  of  the  compo- 
sitions were  read  and  criticised  after  which  we  were 
given  practice  in  extemporaneous  speaking.  10.  There 
are  many  ways  of  meeting  expenses  while  attending  col- 
lege for  example  one  may  tutor  his  less  fortunate  mates 
or  if  not  too  proud  he  may  serve  as  waiter  or  even  as  jan- 
itor. II.  The  capital  leading  questions  on  which  you 
must  this  day  decide  are  these  two  first  whether  you 
ought  to  concede  and  secondly  what  your  concession 
ought  to  be.  12.  This  nation  has  formally  acknowledged 
two  things  first  that  the  Colonies  had  gone  beyond  their 
abilities  Parliament  having  thought  it  necessary  to  reim- 
burse them  secondly  that  they  had  acted  legally  and 
laudably  in  their  grants  of  money  and  their  maintenance 
of  troops  since  the  compensation  is  expressly  given  as  re- 


278  RHETORIC  IN  PRACTICE 

ward    and    encouragement.     13.  The   message    was    this 
come  Thursday  if  possible. 


EXERCISE  181 

Criticise  the  following  sentences. 

I.  "  Well,"  he  exclaimed,  "  We  can  try."  2.  "  Where 
have  you  been  "  ?  she  asked.  3.  "  This,"  he  explained, 
"  is  the  assembly  hall."  "  Here  the  entire  school  gathers 
every  Tuesday  morning  for  worship."  4.  He  declared 
"  that  every  little  was  sure  to  help."  5.  "  His  last 
words,"  the  officer  said,  were  don't  give  up  the  ship."  6. 
"  Have  you  no  more  of  this  kind,"  the  gentleman  en- 
quired? 7.  *' I  came,"  she  sobbed,  "To  see  the  grand 
procession  pass  and  to  hear  the  people  shout  long  live 
the  king."  8.  Have  you  ever  read,  "Silas  Marner"? 
9.  We  chose  the  following  motto ;  "  Live  and  let  live." 

Punctuate  the  following  sentences,  supplying 
capitals  wherever  needed. 

\ir.  What  cried  I  is  my  young  landlord  then  the  nephew 
of  a  man  whose  virtues  generosity  and  singularities  are 
so  universally  known?  I  have  heard  Sir  William 
Thornhill  represented  as  one  of  the  most  generous  yet 
whimsical  men  in  the  kingdom  a  man  of  consummate 
benevolence.  Something  perhaps  too  much  so  replied  Mr. 
Burchell  at  least  he  carried  benevolence  to  an  excess  when 
young.  2.  We  all  followed  him  several  paces  from  the  door 
bawling  after  him  good  luck  good  luck  till  we  could  see 
him  no  longer.  3.  Where  are  you  going  my  pretty  maid 
said  he  I'm  going  a-milking  sir  said  she.     4.  He  began  as 


CLEARNESS  THROUGH  PUNCTUATION    279 

follows  friends  Romans  countrymen.  5.  The  title  of  the 
book  he  replied  is  Silas  Marner  and  then  he  proceeded 
to  tell  the  story.  H^.  He  admitted  that  the  roads  were 
bad  but  he  added  I  think  they  are  not  impassable.  7. 
The  noblest  study  of  mankind  declares  Pope  is  man.  8. 
The  guide  called  out  as  we  passed  his  tent  enquiring 
where  we  were  going.  9.  It  w^as  a  fine  sunny  morning 
when  the  thrilling  cry  of  land  was  given  from  the  mast- 
head. 

EXERCISE  182 

Punctuate  the  following,  in  each  case  justifying 
your  punctuation, 

I.  The  article  was  entitled  hints  to  owners  of  bicycles. 
2.  The  sources  of  this  spirit  of  freedom  were  first  descent 
second  education  third  form  of  government  fourth  the 
form  of  religion  in  the  North  fifth  slavery  in  the  South 
and  sixth  the  distance  from  England.  3.  Chariots  horses 
men  were  huddled  together.  4.  There  were  three  other 
apartments  one  for  my  wife  and  me  another  for  our  two 
daughters  within  our  own  and  the  third  with  two  beds 
for  the  rest  of  the  children.  5.  On  my  return  I  found 
the  family  about  to  start  for  the  shore  of  course  I  went 
too.  6.  Look  at  the  picture  before  us  the  wild  wood  the 
stately  palace  the  river  with  its  reedy  margin.  7.  I 
knew  a  very  wise  man  declared  Andrew  Fletcher  that 
believed  that  if  a  man  were  permitted  to  make  all  the 
ballads  he  need  not  care  who  should  make  the  laws  of  a 
nation.  8.  The  king  then  remembered  that  it  was  no 
fault  of  the  messenger  that  King  Mark  was  disreputable 
therefore  Sir  Kay  should  see  that  he  was  kindly  treated. 
9.  Yes  and  no  are  easily  said  but  before  they  are  said  it 


28o  RHETORIC  IN  PRACTICE 

is  necessary  to  think  a  long  time.     lO.  I  remember  con- 
fessed the  dark-haired  lady  that  at  one  time  my  greatest 
desire  in   life  was   to  become   a   golden-haired   blue-eyed 
individual  very  beautiful  at  the  suggestion  of  some  grown- 
ups I  drank  quantities  of  milk  which  I  detested  for  sev- 
eral  weeks   to   bring  about   the   desired   transformation. 
The  process  was  so  extremely  slow  and  unpleasant  that 
I  finally  abandoned  it  in  disgust,     ii.  Three  centuries 
have  elapsed  since  he  founded  with  a  few  dejected  colo- 
nists the  first  English  settlement  in  America  at  James- 
town Virginia.     12.  It  is  stagnant  waters  which  corrupt 
themselves  not  those  in  agitation  and  on  which  the  winds 
of   heaven   are   freely  blowing.      13.  Metaphors   are   no 
arguments  my  pretty  maiden   said   the   Lady   Hermione 
smiling  I  am  sorry  for  that  madam  answered  Margaret 
for  they  are  such  a  pretty  indirect  way  of  telling  ones 
mind  when  it  differs  from  ones  betters. 
14.  Thirty  days  hath  September 
April  June  and  November 
All  the  rest  have  thirty-one 
Excepting  February  alone 
Which  has  just  eight  and  a  score 
Till  leap-year  gives  it  one  day  more. 


EXERCISE  183 

Justify  the  punctuation  in  the  following  sen- 
tences. 

I.  Some  hold  that  the  colonists  were  all  mercilessly 
slain  by  the  savages;  others  say  that  they  starved  to 
death,  either  on  the  way  or  at  Croaton;  still  others  think 


CLEARNESS  THROUGH  PUNCTUATION    281 

that  they  lived  witli  the  Indians  after  waiting  in  vain 
for  their  own  people  to  come  to  their  aid.  2.  It  is  chiefly 
through  books  that  we  enjoy  intercourse  with  superior 
minds,  and  these  invaluable  means  of  communication  are 
in  the  reach  of  all.  3.  The  old  philosopher  is  still  among 
us  in  the  brown  coat  with  metal  buttons  and  the  shirt 
which  ought  to  be  at  wash,  blinking,  puffing,  rolling  his 
head,  drumming  with  his  fingers,  tearing  his  meat  like  a 
tiger,  and  swallowing  his  tea  in  oceans.  4.  Such  a  mark 
of  national  respect  was  due  to  the  unsullied  statesman,  to 
the  accomplished  scholar,  to  the  master  of  pure  English 
eloquence,  to  the  consummate  painter  of  life  and  manners. 
It  was  due,  above  all,  to  the  great  satirist,  who  alone 
knew  how  to  use  ridicule  without  abusing  it;  who,  with- 
out inflicting  a  wound,  effected  a  great  social  reform ;  and 
who  reconciled  wit  and  virtue,  after  a  long  and  disastrous 
separation,  during  which  wit  had  been  led  astray  by 
profligacy,  and  virtue  by  fanaticism.  5.  Nelson,  who 
was  already  dressed,  exclaimed,  the  moment  he  saw  him, 
"  I  am  sure  you  bring  me  news  of  the  French  and  Span- 
ish fleet !  I  think  I  shall  yet  have  to  beat  them !  "  6. 
When  Sir  Walter  Scott  lay  dying,  he  called  for  his  son- 
in-law,  and  while  the  Tweed  murmured  through  the 
woods,  and  a  September  sun  lit  up  the  bowers,  whose 
growth  he  had  watched  so  eagerly,  said  to  him,  "  Be  a 
good  man;  only  that  can  comfort  you  when  you  come  to 
lie  here!"  7.  They  had  now  reached  the  road  which 
turns  off  to  Sleepy  Hollow ;  but  Gunpowder,  who  seemed 
possessed  with  a  demon,  instead  of  keeping  up  it,  made  an 
opposite  turn  and  plunged  headlong  down  hill  to  the  left, 
8.  Courage  leads  to  heaven;  fear,  to  death. 
9.  Learn  to  read  slow ;  all  other  graces 
Will  follow  in  their  proper  places. 


282  RHETORIC  IN  PRACTICE 

10.  A  thing  of  beauty  is  a  joy  forever; 
Its  loveliness  increases;  it  will  never 
Pass  into  nothingness,  but  still  will  keep 
A  bower  quiet  for  us,  and  a  sleep 
Full  of  sweet  dreams,  and  health,  and  quiet  breath- 
ing.— Keats 


EXERCISE  184 

Criticise  the  following  sentences. 

I.  Its  growing  dark;  lets  start  for  camp.  2.  Who's 
dog  is  it?  3.  He  purchased  a  thousand  dollar's  worth. 
4.  Are  you  fond  of  Dicken's  works?  5.  We  filled  our 
pocket's  with  apples.  6.  Your  always  losing  something. 
7.  Dot  your  is  and  cross  your  ts.  8.  She  cannot  ap- 
prove of  Harry  having  a  canoe.  9.  Where  is  you're  gun  ? 
10.  You  may  all  pass  to  Miss  Robbinses  room.  11.  I 
think  you  should  make  better  fours  and  7s.  12.  He 
found  a  ladies  glove. 


CHAPTER  XX 
BREVITY,  PRECISION,  AND  EUPHONY 

Sentences  that  ramble  on  and  on  stating  essen- 
tially the  same  thing  over  and  over,  sentences  bur- 
dened with  much  that  is  of  so  little  consequence  as 
not  to  be  worth  recording,  and  sentences  in  which 
twenty  words  are  employed  to  do  the  work  of  ten 
are  as  tiresome  as  they  are  common.  Tautology, 
pleonasm,  verbosity,  prolixity,  redundancy,  and 
circumlocution  are  learned  names  for  various  kinds 
of  sinning  against  brevity.  Forget  the  names,  but 
cultivate  the  habit  of  being  reasonably  brief. 
First  determine  definitely  what  you  wish  to  say, 
then  say  it,  and  stop  when  it  is  said.  Do  not  wear 
out  the  reader's  patience.  When  revising,  strike 
out  unnecessary  words — conjunctions,  adverbs,  ad- 
jectives, and  even  clauses.  Above  all,  try  to  sub- 
stitute strong,  precise  words  for  weak  phrases. 
Cutting  away  the  unnecessary  and  substituting  the 
strong  for  the  weak  imparts  vigor  and  precision. 

With  brevity  may  be  associated  euphony.  It  is 
a  common  experience  that  carefully  penned  sen- 
tences fail  to  please  even  though  they  seem  to  say 
precisely  what  the  writer  intended,  and  with  due 

283 


284  RHETORIC  IN  PRACTICE 

economy  In  the  use  of  words.  The  meaning  Is 
clear,  but  the  sentences  do  not  sound  right,  do  not 
run  smoothly.  Just  as  certain  colors  harmonize, 
so  certain  sounds  go  well  together.  Our  language 
Is  rich  In  synonyms;  nearly  every  thought  may  be 
expressed  In  so  many  different  ways  that  It  Is  al- 
most always  possible  to  avoid  unpleasant  word 
combinations,  provided  one's  ear  Is  sufficiently 
trained  to  recognize  harmony  and  rhythm.  It  re- 
quires no  training  of  this  kind,  however,  to  detect 
unnecessary  word  repetition,  the  commonest  sin 
against  euphony;  and  even  a  little  practice  will 
teach  one  how  to  avoid  monotony  In  sentence 
structure  by  departing  occasionally  from  the  nat- 
ural grammatical  order  of  subject  first,  then  pred- 
icate, and  by  varying  the  position  of  adjective  mod- 
ifiers.    Test  your  sentences  by  reading  them  aloud. 


EXERCISE  185 

Condense,  removing  useless  words  and  making 
other  necessary  changes. 

I.  He  had  nothing  to  look  forw^ard  to  in  the  future. 

2.  The  plans  are  alike  in  that  they  both  advocate  peace. 

3.  Then  put  sofa  pillows  about  so  as  to  make  the  window 
seat  look  pretty.  4.  This  is  a  good  poem,  but  the  other 
is  equally  as  Interesting.  5.  It  has  a  long  handle  about  six 
feet  long.     6.  We  then  retraced  our  steps  back  to  camp. 

7.  Hitherto  and  up  to  this  time  we  had  caught  no  trout. 

8.  I   wonder  where  he  lives  at.     9.  The  window  con- 


BREVITY,  PRECISION,  AND  EUPHONY    285 

tained  chairs,  tables,  and  etc.  10.  He  gave  the  both  of  us 
all  we  could  carry.  1 1 .  Antony  sent  a  messenger  to 
Octavius  so  as  to  let  him  know  of  Caesar's  death.  12. 
In  the  cutting  room,  which  is  situated  on  the  second 
floor,  is  where  the  actual  construction  of  the  tire  is  begun. 
13.  After  I  had  made  careful  examination,  I  decided  to 
take  the  red  one.  14.  The  pears  were  delicious,  and  the 
peaches  were  equally  as  good.  15.  We  went  camping 
out  over  at  Snipsic  Lake.  16.  The  incidents  which  hap- 
pened were  many  and  various.  17.  Let  the  water  boil 
about  five  minutes  from  the  time  it  first  begins  to  boil. 

18.  We  could  have  gone  yesterday  had  we  have  cared  to. 

19.  I  cannot  approve  of  it  by  any  manner  of  means.  20. 
The  people,  although  they  said  that  Brutus  was  right,  yet 
nevertheless  they  were  soon  won  over  by  Antony.  21. 
As  I  have  not  heard  from  you,  I  therefore  conclude  that 
all  is  well.  22.  They  returned  back  again  to  the  same 
city  from  whence  they  came  forth.  23.  The  following 
way  is  one  way  of  making  a  catamaran.  24.  I  could  not 
see  but  what  all  was  right.  25.  They  each  had  a  dollar 
apiece.  26.  Macaulay  first  begins  by  telling  of  John- 
son's father.  27.  While  I  was  debating  what  I  should 
do,  I  saw  Henry  approaching.  28.  I  see  him  every  now 
and  then.  29.  We  shall  be  with  you  by  the  latter  end 
of  May.  30.  Once  upon  a  time  there  were  some  men 
building  a  tall  brick  chimney.  31.  It  appears  to  be  a 
rough-looking  place.  32.  The  lodge  was  covered  on  the 
outside  with  vines  which  grew  all  over  it.  33.  His  down- 
fall was  due  to  the  excessive  drinking  of  intoxicating 
liquors.  34.  He  could  boast  of  a  long  line  of  ancestors 
back  of  him.  35.  Hence  it  follows,  therefore,  that  you 
were  right.  36.  Add  together  these  three  numbers.  37. 
It  was  an  unintentional  blunder. 


286  RHETORIC  IN  PRACTICE 


EXERCISE  186 

Reconstruct  the  following  sentences,  exercising 
economy, 

I.  Henry  gave  up  at  once,  but  Edward  he  stuck  to  the 
task.  2.  From  this  mammoth  station  trains  start  every 
few  minutes  for  their  destinations.  3.  After  dinner  we 
sang  some  songs  and  played  some  games.  4.  What  kind 
of  a  bird  is  it?  5.  The  sea-fight  was  a  wonderful  spec- 
tacle to  the  spectators.  6.  "  I  think,"  she  said,  "  that  if 
a  person  has  a  talent  for  anything,  even  if  it  is  only  for 
washing  windows,  that  she  should  cultivate  it."  7.  Like 
all  new  novelties,  this  device  must  win  popularity.  8. 
It  must  have  been  an  interesting  sight  to  see  the  two 
commanders  under  the  elm  tree.  9.  At  the  age  of  four- 
teen years  he  went  to  sea.  10.  I  think  that  by  leaving 
home  when  he  was  young  that  John  acquired  the  ability  to 
look  out  for  himself.  11.  At  about  ten  o'clock  we  atll 
went  home.  12.  The  present  system  of  forecasting  the 
w^eather  now  used  was  developed  in  1870.  13.  Although 
personally  I  have  had  no  experience  myself,  I  can  tell  what 
others  of  experience  have  reported.  14.  Of  course  there 
are  many  other  ways  of  which  I  know  nothing  about. 
15.  Ellen  skates  very  well  for  a  new  beginner.  16.  After 
talking  about  the  boat  with  a  man  who  had  long  made 
a  business  of  making  boats,  we  decided  that  we  would 
make  our  boat  of  cedar  wood.  17.  She  did  not  look 
to  see  where  she  was  going  to.  18.  He  would  rather  die 
than  to  live  in  disgrace.  19.  In  some  of  the  cities  there 
are  large  mills  where  cotton  goods  are  made,  which  afford 
work  for  many  people.  20.  The  cat  stays  in  on  rainy 
days  because  that  she  does  not  like  to  wet  her  feet.    21. 


BREVITY,  PRECISION,  AND  EUPHONY    287 

The  loftiest  mountains  in  this  fairyland,  I  do  not  think, 
were  not  over  six  feet  high.  22.  The  road  is  poor,  it 
being  sandy.  23.  I  have  got  you  now^.  24.  It  was  so 
foggy  we  couldn't  hardly  see  the  shore.  25.  They  feared 
the  consequences  that  would  follow.  26.  Nearly  every 
day  we  visit  the  shore  and  go  in  bathing,  fishing,  or 
sailing. 


EXERCISE  187 

Condense  the  following. 

I.  It  is  evident  that  this  picture  was  taken  on  a  bright 
day.  2.  To  clean  windows,  the  first  thing  to  do  is  to 
get  a  basin  of  warm  water,  a  cake  of  soap,  and  two  or 
three  cloths.  3.  This  story  which  I  recall  to  mind  is 
not  clear  in  my  memory  as  to  whether  I  read  it,  made  it 
up,  or  heard  it  told  to  me  as  an  actual  experience.  4. 
The  main  reason  why  Brutus  was  asked  to  join  the  con- 
spiracy was  because  he  was  a  man  of  great  influence.  5. 
A  small  party  of  settlers  wound  their  way  along  a  lonely 
Indian  trail  through  a  dense  forest  of  pines.  It  was  a 
crooked  path,  winding  in  and  out  occasionally  to  avoid  a 
huge  tree  trunk  or  a  small  bog,  and  bore  the  traces  of 
flat  moccasined  feet  and  five  clawed  paws.  6.  The  results 
that  resulted  resulted  in  the  following  results.  7.  He 
wore  a  long  coat  which  by  its  appearance  looked  to  be 
old.  8.  It  was  a  sad  sight  to  witness.  9.  I  cannot  help 
but  feel  discouraged.  10.  His  father,  who  was  an  attor- 
ney and  well  to  do,  was  of  an  old  Scotch  family,  and  his 
mother  also,  who  was  the  daughter  of  a  distinguished 
physician  in  Edinburgh. 


288  RHETORIC  IN  PRACTICE 


EXERCISE  188 

The  words  in  each  of  the  following  groups  have 
a  family  resemblance,  yet  each  word  conveys  a 
shade  of  meaning  or  is  used  in  a  particular  way 
that  gives  it  individuality. 

Study  these  groups  with  a  view  to  discovering 
exact  meanings,  nice  distinctions.  Practice  of  this 
kind  is  of  value  in  that  it  teaches  one  to  he  precise. 

I.  Awful,  dreadful,  terrible,  fearful,  horrible,  appal- 
ling; grand,  imposing,  majestic.  2.  Nice,  splendid,  de- 
lightful, elegant;  prim,  trim,  tidy,  dainty,  fine,  exquisite. 
3.  Beautiful,  pretty,  lovely,  handsome,  charming,  at- 
tractive. 4.  Sweet,  gentle,  affectionate,  kind,  amiable. 
5.  Fierce,  wild,  ferocious,  furious.  6.  Big,  great,  large, 
Immense,  enormous,  colossal,  gigantic,  vast,  extensive.  7. 
Clever,  bright,  smart,  gifted,  sharp,  talented,  capable, 
quick-witted.  8.  Polite,  courteous,  well-bred,  genteel, 
gentlemanly,  tactful,  civil,  urbane.  9.  Ignorant,  Illiter- 
ate, uneducated,  misinformed.  Ill-informed.  10.  Guess, 
suppose.  Imagine,  think,  conjecture,  presume.  11. 
Scholar,  pupil,  student.  12.  Home,  house,  dwelling, 
residence,  abode.  13.  Show,  play,  performance,  enter- 
tainment, festival,  celebration,  game,  contest,  exercises. 
14.  Silly,  foolish,  ridiculous,  ludicrous,  stupid.  15.  Pleas- 
ant, pleasing,  agreeable,  good-natured.  16.  Answer, 
reply,  rejoin,  exclaim,  retort,  cry,  say.  17.  Lie,  deceit, 
prevarication,  fraud,  cunning,  hypocrisy,  duplicity,  fabri- 
cation, falsehood.  Imposition.  18.  Wit,  witticism,  droll- 
ery, humor,  joke,  pleasantry,  facetlousness.  19.  Hate, 
dislike,  detest,  despise,  abhor.     20.  Faithful,  true,  loyal, 


BREVITY,  PRECISION,  AND  EUPHONY    289 

trustworthy.   Incorruptible.     21.  Job,   trade,  calling,   vo- 
cation, employment,  business,  profession,  occupation. 


EXERCISE  189 

Form  groups  like  the  above,  associating  related 
words  with  each  of  the  following.  Point  out 
shades  of  meaning  and  'special  uses. 


love 

discover         crafty 

coax 

lively 

curious           stingy 

amazement 

awkward 

look                lazy 

anger 

hit 

afraid             annoy 

call 

price 

brave             behavior 

happy 

get 

journey          very 
EXERCISE  190 

little 

Define  the  following  in  such  a  way  as  to  bring 
out  clearly  the  meaning, 

I.  Audience,  spectators    2.  teach,  learn    3.    leave,  let 

4.  stop,   stay     5.  show,   play  6.  ride,   drive     7.  verbal, 

oral     8.  invent,   discover     9.  practical,   practicable     10. 
party,  person 


EXERCISE  191 

Reconstruct  the  following  sentences,   avoiding 
unpleasant  repetition. 


290  RHETORIC  IN  PRACTICE 

I.  At  first  it  only  sprinkled  and  we  thought  it  was 
only  a  passing  shower.  2.  Ice  could  be  seen  on  most 
store  windows  so  that  very  little  could  be  seen  of  what 
was  within.  3.  The  wind  grew  colder  and  colder;  but 
the  man  would  not  take  off  his  coat  but  pulled  it  closer 
about  him.  4.  As  the  sun  grew  still  warmer,  he  took  off 
the  rest  of  his  clothes  and  bathed  in  a  brook  to  cool  off. 
5.  The  day  was  spent  very  quietly,  but  we  decided  it 
had  been  a  very  pleasant  day.  6.  There  are  drawbacks 
to  all  attempts  to  earn  money  to  pay  for  a  person's  edu- 
cation; for  example,  a  person  is  often  tempted  to  attempt 
too  much.  7.  Pushing  other  things  aside,  I  came  to  an 
old  chest  standing  grim  and  silent,  and  thickly  covered 
with  dust.  A  moment's  thought  told  me  that  it  was 
the  old  chest  containing  the  toys  of  my  childhood  days. 
8.  The  sun  is  sinking,  and  there  is  a  glorious  flood  of 
pink  light  flooding  the  distant  mountains.  9.  The  robins 
would  run  a  little  way,  then  stop  and  pick  up  something, 
then  raise  their  heads  and  look  about  quickly  as  though 
looking  to  see  if  there  was  anything  to  harm  them.  10. 
The  first  thing  I  noticed  as  I  sat  down  before  the  window 
to  take  down  notes  was  the  red  sky  in  the  northeast.  It 
was  a  very  dark  red  near  the  horizon,  but  grew  into  the 
pale  blue  after  reaching  far  up.  11.  There  is  a  large 
pond  here,  bordered  with  bushes.  We  walked  around 
the  pond  and  up  the  hill  on  the  west  side  of  the  pond. 
12.  One  by  one  the  girls  walked  away.  One  could  see 
them  strolling  about.  13.  He  fished  with  a  long  bamboo 
pole  at  least  ten  feet  long.  14.  Addison  soon  became 
interested  in  this  field  of  work  and  soon  drifted  from 
politics  to  literature.  15.  Now  he  has  broken  off  a  stick 
for  Mary;  so  off  they  scamper.  16.  He  attended  school 
at  the  Hillhouse  school.     17.     After  my  long  tramp,  I 


BREVITY,  PRECISION,  AND  EUPHONY    291 

felt  very  tired;  so  I  retired  early.  18.  It  is  very  warm 
here  in  the  summer  time;  but  you  will  not  mind  that,  as 
that  is  the  time  that  people  go  away  to  the  shore  or  to  the 
mountains. 


EXERCISE  192 

Recast  the  following,  with  a  view  to  avoiding 
unpleasant  word  and  sound  repetition. 

I.  What  with  parties  and  other  good  times  not  much 
time  was  left  for  homesickness.  2.  The  house  where  I 
was  visiting  stood  quite  a  distance  from  the  road.  The 
house  was  old-fashioned,  with  long,  wide  verandas.  3. 
His  expression  expressed  his  ever  varying  emotions.  4. 
To  any  one  who  enjoys  outdoor  life  there  is  not  anything 
so  enjoyable  as  camping  out.  5.  She  had  a  magic  drink 
which  she  enticed  travelers  to  drink;  and  if  they  drank, 
her  magic  wand  transformed  them  to  beasts.  6.  Winter 
is  here,  and  with  it  the  fireside  tales  we  all  love  to  hear. 
7.  Whether  one  looks  toward  a  distant  city  at  sunrise, 
mid-day,  sunset,  twilight,  or  midnight,  it  is  ever  an  object 
of  fascination.  At  a  distance  of  seven  or  eight  miles  a 
distant  city's  spires,  tall  buildings,  and  smoke  stacks  can 
be  seen  beneath  thin  trails  of  wind-blown  smoke.  8. 
But  for  thirteen  years  there  was  no  outbreak.  All  this 
time  Philip  kept  himself  under  restraint.  Although  again 
and  again  the  Plymouth  people  suspected  him  of  plotting 
against  them,  he  always  succeeded  in  convincing  them 
that  their  suspicions  were  unfounded.  On  being  called 
to  trial  in  1671,  he  even  agreed  to  give  up  to  the  whites 
all  his  firearms,  hut  "  all  '*  in  this  case  meant  hut  seventy 


292  RHETORIC  IN  PRACTICE 

muskets.  9.  I  was  surprised  to  see  my  children  gathered 
about  my  knee.  Seeing  it  was  nearly  bedtime,  I  told 
them  a  story,  then  sent  them  to  bed.  10.  One  of  his 
stories  that  interested  us  greatly  was  one  that  told  how 
he  had  nearly  lost  one  of  his  dogs.  11.  There  were  a 
few  houses  near  there.  12.  About  thirty  boys  left  the 
building  about  two-thirty.  13.  After  walking  quite  a 
distance  we  found  a  grape  vine  with  quite  a  good  many 
clusters  of  grapes  on  it.  After  we  had  eaten  quite  a  few, 
we  began  to  fill  our  pails.  14.  The  nobleman,  seeing 
that  he  could  not  make  the  fisherman  change  his  price, 
said,  "  Well,  I  must  have  the  fish."  Then  he  called  a 
servant  and  said,  "  Give  this  man  thirty  lashes,  but  Jay 
them  on  lightly."  When  the  fifteenth  lash  had  been 
given  the  fisherman  said,  ''Stop!  I  have  a  partner;  he 
must  have  his  share."  The  nobleman  said,  ''What!  are 
there  two  such  madmen?"  15.  It  was  not  just  to  give 
all  the  reward  to  James  just  because  he  arrived  first,  for 
Henry  worked  just  as  hard  as  he.  16.  The  cheering 
from  the  other  side  at  length  subsided. 


CHAPTER  XXI 
VARIETY  IN  SENTENCE  STRUCTURE 

Sentences  are  called  declarative,  interroga- 
tive, or  exclamatory  according  as  they  make  asser- 
tions, ask  questions,  or  express  deep  and  sudden 
emotions.  Yet  a  study  of  good  literature  reveals 
that  the  interrogative  and  the  exclamatory  are 
sometimes  used  for  dramatic  effect.  The  interro- 
gation point  often  suggests  more  than  a  mere  ques- 
tion ;  it  Is  like  a  beckoning  hand,  or  a  voice  calling 
Come  and  deny  this.  It  is  a  challenge  to  combat. 
The  exclamation  point  resembles  in  shape  a  sti- 
letto ;  the  exclamatory  sentence  sometimes  stirs  the 
feelings  as  a  declarative  could  not.     It  stabs ! 

Notice  the  challenging  interrogatives  in  Shy- 
lock's  reply  to  Salarino.  *'  He  hath  disgraced  me, 
and  hindered  me  half  a  million;  laughed  at  my 
losses,  mocked  at  my  gains,  scorned  my  nation; 
thwarted  my  bargains,  cooled  my  friends,  heated 
mine  enemies,  and  what's  the  reason?  I  am  a 
Jew.  Hath  not  a  Jew  eyes?  hath  not  a  Jew  hands? 
organs,  dimensions,  senses,  affections,  passions?  fed 
with  the  same  food,  hurt  with  the  same  weapons, 
subject  to  the  same  diseases,  healed  by  the  same 
means,  warmed  and  cooled  by  the  same  summer 

293 


294  RHETORIC  IN  PRACTICE 

and  winter,  as  a  Christian  is?  If  you  prick  us,  do 
we  not  bleed?  if  you  tickle  us,  do  we  not  laugh? 
If  you  poison  us,  do  we  not  die?  and  if  you  wrong 
us,  shall  we  not  be  revenged?  "  Shylock  does  not 
ask  these  questions  for  the  purpose  of  gaining  in- 
formation; every  interrogation  is  a  challenge. 
And  in  the  opening  scene  of  Julius  Caesar,  how 
effective  is  not  only  the  interrogative  but  the 
exclamatory  sentence,  as  used  in  the  speech  of 
Marullus. 

Wherefore  rejoice!     What  conquest  brings  he  home? 

What  tributaries  follow  him  to  Rome, 

To  grace  in  captive  bonds  his  chariot  wheels? 

You  blocks,  you  stones,  you  worse  than  senseless  things! 

O  you  hard  hearts,  you  cruel  men  of  Rome, 

Knew  you  not  Pompey?   .    .    . 

And  do  you  now  put  on  your  best  attire  ? 
And  do  you  now  cull  out  a  holiday? 
And  do  you  now  strew  flowers  in  his  way 
That  comes  in  triumph  over  Pompey's  blood  ? 
Be  gone! 

The  orator,  the  poet.  Indeed  whoever  wishes  to 
stir  the  feelings  of  those  addressed,  does  not  use 
the  declarative  alone;  he  employs  all  three  forms, 
and  not  solely  for  the  purpose  of  securing  variety. 
Even  the  schoolboy  can  learn,  with  a  little 
practice,  to  use  these  stronger,  sharper  weapons 
effectively. 

Sentences  may  be  classified  in  still  another  way. 


VARIETY  IN  SENTENCE  STRUCTURE     295 

They  are  said  to  be  periodic,  loose,  or  balanced. 
Notice    the    following    fragment    of    a    sentence. 

Around  the  rugged  rock  the  ragged  rascal . 

Did  the  rascal  leap?  hop?  creep?  He  ran.  But 
until  the  word  ran  is  added  the  sense  is  suspended. 
A  sentence  in  which  the  meaning  is  thus  suspended 
till  the  end  is  called  periodic.  It  is  effective  be- 
cause it  holds  the  reader's  attention,  keeps  him 
alert,  arouses  his  curiosity.  It  is  better,  often- 
times, than  the  so-called  loose  sentence,  the  or- 
dinary kind,  where  a  good  part  of  the  meaning  is 
grasped  some  time  before  the  period  is  reached, 
the  last  words  being  a  subordinate  clause,  it  may 
be,  or  an  unimportant  modifier.  Just  as  there  are 
many  degrees  of  looseness,  so  too,  it  should  be 
remembered,  periodic  is  a  relative  term;  but  the 
device  always  has  the  same  purpose,  namely,  to 
hold  the  reader  in  suspense. 

A  balanced  sentence,  as  the  name  implies,  is  a 
sentence  in  which  one  part  balances  another — a 
clumsy  definition,  but  better,  perhaps,  than  a  longer 
one  covering  all  possible  varieties.  To  use  a 
homely  illustration,  the  balance  is  arranged  like  a 
see-saw,  with  a  pivotal  point  on  each  side  of  which 
is  a  load,  the  loads  being  practically  equal.  No- 
tice the  following :  A  juggler  is  a  wit  in  things,  and 
a  wit  a  juggler  in  words.  In  this  sentence,  as  in 
most  balanced  sentences,  the  conjunction  forms  the 
pivot.  Juggler  and  wit  are  found  preceding  the 
pivot;  they  are  also  found,  in  reverse  order,  fol- 
lowing the  pivot.     Things  balances  words.    Here 


296  RHETORIC  IN  PRACTICE 

is  another  example:  Integrity  without  knowledge 
is  weak  and  useless,  and  knowledge  without  integ- 
rity is  dangerous  and  dreadful.  In  this  sentence 
Integrity  without  knowledge  is  balanced  by  knowl- 
edge without  integrity;  weak  and  useless  is  bal- 
anced by  dangerous  and  dreadful.  Sometimes  but 
part  of  a  sentence  is  involved,  as  in  the  line 

To  stop  too  fearful,  and  too  faint  to  go. 

This  sentence  arrangement  is  effective  for  a 
number  of  reasons.  First,  it  throws  into  promi- 
nence the  important  words  through  contrast  or 
antithesis,  just  as  we  set  white  against  black,  the 
good  against  the  bad,  to  emphasize  the  difference. 
Second,  it  pleases  because  of  its  symmetry;  we  like 
to  have  things  well  balanced,  like  to  see  two  parts 
of  anything  correspond,  or  match  each  other. 
Third,  it  enables  the  writer  to  put  his  thought  in 
such  attractive  form  that  it  is  easily  remembered, 
like  a  proverb  or  an  epigram. 

Related,  in  a  way,  to  the  periodic  sentence  is 
one  arranged  on  the  climax  plan,  the  interest  in- 
creasing step  by  step,  the  more  important  or  the 
more  interesting  following  the  less  important  or 
less  interesting,  till  an  impressive  close  is  reached. 
It  is  like  the  ascent  of  a  hill,  each  upward  climb 
revealing  some  unexpected  view  more  beautiful 
than  the  preceding  one;  or  like  the  approach  of  a 
grand  pageant,  at  first  seen  but  imperfectly,  then 
more  distinctly,  and  at  last  in  all  its  splendor  of 


VARIETY  IN  SENTENCE  STRUCTURE     297 

movement  and  color.  Not  every  sentence  can  be 
cast  in  climax  order,  yet  It  Is  well  to  keep  In  mind, 
when  writing,  that  such  order  Is  effective.  We 
see  It  faintly  In  the  Roman  general's  message 
home :  /  came,  I  saw,  I  conquered.  It  Is  conspic- 
uous In  the  following  lines  from  Longfellow's  The 
Launching  of  the  Ship. 

And  see !  she  stirs ! 

She  starts — she  moves — she  seems  to  feel 

The  thrill  of  life  along  her  keel, 

And,  spurning  with  her  foot  the  ground, 

With  one  exulting,  joyous  bound, 

She  leaps  into  the  ocean's  arms! 

Simpler  than  any  of  the  devices  thus  far  men- 
tioned, commonplace  yet  effective,  is  plain  repeti- 
tion of  word  or  phrase. 

Alone,  alone,  all,  all  alone,  * 

Alone  on  a  wide,  wide  sea!  } 

And  never  a  saint  took  pity  on 
My  soul  in  agony. 

Thus  the  Ancient  Mariner  to  the  Wedding  Guest, 
impressively  picturing  his  first  emotion  upon  real- 
izing that  all  his  companions  are  dead.  It  would 
be  easy  to  multiply  examples,  for  prose  no  less  than 
poetry  Is  full  of  them,  and  we  use  the  device  com- 
monly In  daily  conversation. 

Finally,  any  unusual  arrangement  of  the  sen- 
tence serves  to  attract  notice;  and  by  keeping  this 
in  mind  the  skilled  writer  often  succeeds  in  focus- 


298  RHETORIC  IN  PRACTICE 

ing  attention  upon  some  word  or  phrase  which 
otherwise  would  have  little  power.  Macaulay  uses 
this  device  repeatedly,  and  it  Is  a  favorite  with  the 
poets. 

Black  grew  the  sky, — all  black,  all  black; 
The  clouds  were  everywhere. 

The  first  of  these  two  lines  is  more  impressive  than 
it  would  be  if  written 

The  sky  grew  black, — all  black,  all  black. 

The  repetition  Is  effective;  but  the  adjective,  com- 
ing first,  jumps  out  at  the  reader  In  a  startling 
manner.  Whatever  stands  first  In  a  sentence,  espe- 
cially If  naturally  It  would  be  placed  elsewhere, 
gains  emphasis. 

Always  to  write  with  a  view  to  gaining  force 
through  varying  the  sentence  structure  would  be 
unwise.  Effective  composition  Is  not  a  series  of 
clever  tricks.  The  devices  mentioned  in  this  chap- 
ter are  of  value  only  when  used  In  moderation. 
They  should  be  kept  in-  mind  when  revising  rather 
than  when  making  a  first  draft.  Yet  It  Is  remark- 
able how  often  even  Inexperienced  writers  employ 
them  unknowingly — remarkable,  yet  not  strange; 
for  after  all,  they  are  natural  expedients,  appeal- 
ing strongly  to  human  nature.  We  crave  variety; 
monotony  wearies  us.  We  enjoy  the  challenge  of 
the  interrogative,  the  shock  of  the  exclamatory. 


VARIETY  IN  SENTENCE  STRUCTURE     299 

We  like  to  be  kept  in  suspense,  especially  if  sur- 
prise follows,  as  it  does  frequently  in  the  periodic 
sentence  and  the  sentence  arranged  in  climax  order. 
We  enjoy  contrast  and  symmetry,  especially  if 
compounded  with  ingenuity,  and  these  are  the 
essence  of  the  balance.  We  like  to  have  our  at- 
tention impelled,  as  it  is  when  a  word  or  phrase  is 
repeated  or  is  made  to  pop  out  at  us  from  some 
unusual  position.  Challenge,  shock,  suspense,  sur- 
prise, contrast,  symmetry,  variety:  these,  after  all, 
are  common  weapons  useful  in  commanding  atten- 
tion; but  they  should  be  used  seriously,  not  as  one 
brandishes  a  tin  sword  or  beats  a  toy  drum. 


EXERCISE  193 

Study  the  following  sentences.  What  devices 
do  you  find  illustrated?  Are  any  of  the  sentences 
periodic?  balanced?  arranged  in  climax  order? 
Where  is  emphasis  attempted  through  repetition 
or  unusual  position?  Where  is  the  short  sentence 
used  effectively? 

I.  To  err  is  human;  to  forgive,  divine.  2.  If  the  true 
spark  of  religious  and  civil  liberty  be  kindled,  It  will  burn. 
3.  Long  and  fierce  was  the  altercation.  4.  We,  we  alon^ 
— I  say  It  openly — we,  the  consuls,  are  wanting  In  our 
duty.  5.  Judge  not,  that  ye  be  not  judged.  For  with 
what  judgment  ye  judge,  ye  shall  be  judged;  and  with 
what  measure  ye  mete,  it  shall  be  measured  to  you  again. 
6.  The  memory  of  other  authors  is  kept  alive  by  their 


300  RHETORIC  IN  PRACTICE 

works;  but  the  memory  of  Johnson  keeps  many  of  his 
"V  works  alive.  7.  His  temper  was  sweet,  his  affections 
L  warm,  his  spirits  lively,  and  his  principles  weak.  8.  This 
called  on  me  for  revenge.  I  have  sought  it.  I  have 
killed  many.  I  have  glutted  my  vengeance.  For  my 
country,  I  rejoice  at  the  beams  of  peace.  But  do  not 
think  that  mine  is  the  joy  of  fear.  Logan  never  felt  fear. 
Logan  will  not  turn  on  his  heel  to  save  his  life.  Who  is 
there  to  mourn  for  Logan?  Not  one!  9.  Do  men 
gather  grapes  of  thorns,  or  figs  of  thistles?  10.  Sudden 
prosperity  had  turned  Garrick's  head.  Continued  adver- 
sity had  soured  Johnson's  temper.  11.  All  things  come 
round  to  him  who  will  but  wait.  12.  Onward  therefore 
the  Kalmucks  pressed,  marking  the  lines  of  their  wide  ex- 
tending march  over  the  sad  solitudes  of  the  steppes  by  a 
never-ending  chain  of  corpses.  13.  And  the  king  was 
much  moved,  and  went  up  to  the  chamber  over  the  gate 
and  wept ;  and  as  he  went,  thus  he  said :  O  my  son  Absa- 
lom! would  God  I  had  died  for  thee,  O  Absalom,  my 
son,  my  son!  14.  The  vigilance  of  the  supreme  magis- 
trate may  do  much,  but  much  will  still  remain  undone. 
He  can  never  know  all  the  crimes  that  are  committed, 
/and  can  seldom  punish  all  that  he  knows.  15.  He  that 
I  findeth  his  life  shall  lose  it;  and  he  that  loseth  his  life 
\  for  my  sake  shall  find  it.  16.  Such  is  the  spirit  of  Lib- 
erty. At  times  she  takes  the  form  of  a  hateful  reptile. 
She  grovels,  she  hisses,  she  stings.  17.  It  is  in  vain,  sir, 
to  extenuate  matters.  Gentlemen  may  cry  Peace,  Peace 
— but  there  is  no  peace.  The  war  is  actually  begun! 
The  next  gale  that  sweeps  from  the  north  will  bring  to 
our  ears  the  clash  of  resounding  arms!  Our  brethren 
are  already  in  the  field!  Why  stand  we  here  idle? 
What  is  it  that  the  gentlemen  wish?     What  would  they 


VARIETY  IN  SENTENCE  STRUCTURE    301 

have?  Is  life  so  dear,  or  peace  so  sweet,  as  to  be  pur- 
chased at  the  price  of  chains  and  slavery?  Forbid  it, 
Almighty  God!  I  know  not  what  course  others  may 
take;  but  as  for  me,  give  me  liberty  or  give  me  death! 
18.  The  sea  drives  us  to  the  barbarians,  and  the  bar-i 
barians  drive  us  back  to  the  sea. 

19.  Shylock,  albeit  I  neither  lend  nor  borrow 
By  taking  nor  by  giving  of  excess, 

Yet,  to  supply  the  ripe  wants  of  my  friend, 
I'll  break  a  custom. 

20.  Eight  bells!  and  suddenly  abaft, 

With  a  great  rush  of  rain, 
Making  the  ocean  white  with  spume, 
In  darkness  like  the  day  of  doom, 

On  came  the  hurricane. 


EXERCISE  194 

Study  the  following  sentences,  noticing  the  dra- 
matic devices  employed. 

I.  There  were  gentlemen  and  there  were  seamen  in  the\  , 
Navy  of  Charles  II.    But  the  seamen  were  not  gentlemen  ^ 
and  the  gentlemen  were  not  seamen.    2.  To  hope  for  safetyx 
in  flight,  when  you  have  turned  away  from  the  enemy/ 
by  which  the  body  Is  defended,   Is  indeed  madness.     ^. 
Anne  had  felt  a  strong  aversion,  personal,  political,  and 
religious,  to  the  Whig  party.     4.  Yet  a  few  months,  and 
the  same   mourners  passed   again   along  the   same  aisle. 
The  same  sad   anthem  was   again   chanted.     The   same 
vault  was  again  opened;  and  the  coffin  of  Craggs  was 
placed  close  to  the  coffin  of  Addison.    5.  Faithful  are  the 


302  RHETORIC  IN  PRACTICE 

wounds  of  a  friend;  but  the  kisses  of  an  enemy  are  de- 
ceitful. 6.  Yet  this  father,  this  high  priest,  this  invio- 
lable being,  hero,  god,  is  dead;  alas!  dead  not  by  the  vio- 
lence of  some  disease,  nor  exhausted  by  old  age,  nor 
wounded  abroad  somewhere  in  some  war,  nor  snatched 
away  irresistibly  by  some  supernatural  force;  but  plotted 
against  here  within  the  walls — the  man  that  safely  led  an 
army  into  Britain;  ambushed  in  this  city — the  man  who 
had  increased  its  circuit;  struck  down  in  the  senate-house 
— the  man  that  had  reared  another  such  edifice  at  his  own 
charge;  unarmed,  the  brave  warrior;  defenceless,  the  pro- 
moter of  peace;  the  judge  beside  the  court  of  justice;  the 
governor  beside  the  seat  of  government;  at  the  hands  of 
citizens — he  whom  none  of  the  enemy  had  been  able  to 
kill  even  when  he  fell  into  the  sea;  at  the  hands  of  his 
comrades — he  who  had  often  taken  pity  on  them.  7. 
Can  the  blind  lead  the  blind  ?  shall  they  not  both  fall  into 
the  ditch?  8.  It  is  not  the  dark  place  that  hinders,  but 
the  dim  eye.  9.  He  prostrated  himself  in  the  dust  be- 
fore his  Maker;  but  he  set  his  foot  on  the  neck  of  his 
king.  10.  He  who,  in  an  enlightened  and  literary  soci- 
ety, aspires  to  be  a  great  poet,  must  first  become  a  little 
child.  II.  On  a  rock  where  the  snow  still  lay,  though 
the  Italian  spring  was  now  far  advanced,  was  perched  the 
little  fortress  of  San  Marino.  12.  Whom  therefore  ye 
ignorantly  worship,  him  declare  I  unto  you.  13.  Dead 
rides  Sir  Morten  of  Fogelsang.  14.  Men  have  been  re- 
called from  banishment  by  a  dead  man;  the  freedom  of 
the  city  has  been  conferred  not  only  on  individuals  but  on 
entire  nations  and  provinces  by  a  dead  man;  our  rev- 
enues have  been  diminished  by  the  granting  of  countless 
/exemptions  by  a  dead  man.  15.  The  king's  wrath  is  as  a 
yroaring  lion,  but  his  favor  is  as  dew  upon  grass.     16. 


VARIETY  IN  SENTENCE  STRUCTURE     303 

Nor,  we  are  convinced,  will  the  severest  of  our  readers 
blame  us  if,  on  an  occasion  like  the  present,  we  turn  for 
a  short  time  from  the  topics  of  the  day,  to  commemorate, 
in  all  love  and  reverence,  the  genius  and  virtues  of  John 
Milton,  the  poet,  the  statesman,  the  philosopher,  the  glory 
of  English  literature,  the  champion  and  martyr  of  English 
liberty.  17.  Is  a  candle  brought  to  be  put  under  a 
bushel,  or  under  a  bed,  and  not  to  be  set  on  a  candle- 
stick? 18.  Lay  not  up  for  yourselves  treasures  upon 
earth,  where  moth  and  rust  doth  corrupt,  and  where 
thieves  break  through  and  steal ;  but  lay  up  for  yourselves 
treasures  in  heaven,  where  neither  moth  nor  rust  doth 
corrupt,  and  where  thieves  do  not  break  through  nor  steal ; 
for  where  your  treasure  is,  there  will  your  heart  be  also. 
19.  All  at  once,  and  by  mere  accident,  he  had  lighted  upon^ 
a  vein  of  pure  gold.  20.  When  we  take  a  little  nearer^ 
and  more  detailed  view,  we  perceive  that  nature  has,  as 
it  were,  ordained  that  this  people  and  this  country  shall 
ultimately  constitute  several  different  nations, 
and  miserable  was  the  way  in  which  you  led  you: 
into  towns ;  shameful  was  the  pillage  in  every  city  of  gol( 
and  silver,  and  above  all,  of  men.  22.  What  did  Par- 
liament with  this  audacious  address?  Reject  it  as 
a  libel?  Treat  it  as  an  affront  to  government?  Spurn 
it  as  a  derogation  from  the  rights  of  legislature?  Did 
they  toss  it  over  the  table  ?  Did  they  burn  it  by  the  hands 
of  the  common  hangman?  They  took  the  petition  of 
grievance,  all  rugged  as  it  was,  without  softening  or  tem- 
perament, unpurged  of  the  original  bitterness  and  indig- 
nation of  complaint;  they  made  it  the  very  preamble  to 
their  act  of  redress,  and  consecrated  its  principle  to  all 
ages  in  the  sanctity  of  legislation.  23.  He  was  a  rake 
among  scholars,  and  a  scholar  among  rakes. 


untry  snaii 

21.  Cruel\ 
)ur  soldiers! 
:ity  of  gol(/ 


304  RHETORIC  IN  PRACTICE 


EXERCISE  195 

Reconstruct  the  following  sentences  in  such  a 
way  as  to  make  the  italicized  words  stand  out  more 
emphatically. 

I.  He  obeys  very  well  when  his  master  Is  present;  it  is 
another  matter  when  his  master  is  away.  2.  He  went\  y 
straight  up  to  the  door  and  banged  upon  it  with  his  fist.  3^ 
You  will  regret  it,  if  you  do  not  come.  4.  He  saw  the 
engine  dash  by,  happening  to  go  to  the  window.  5.  The 
night  was  wild.  6.  We  shall  see  our  native  land  no  more. 
\i<{  7.  She  instantly  launched  her  boat.  8.  I  have  no  silver 
and  gold.  9.  It  Is  true  that  the  end  crowns  the  work,  but 
only  such  work  as  the  man  has  found  himself  qualified  for. 
10.  Death  is  the  wages  of  sin. 


EXERCISE  196 

Bring  to  class  sentences  illustrating  some  of  the 
devices  studied  in  the  three  preceding  exercises. 
Invent  the  sentences  or  take  them  from  books, 
whichever  you  please. 


CHAPTER  XXII 

FIGURES   OF   SPEECH 

Seldom  do  we  say  things  In  the  plainest,  most 
ordinary  way  possible;  a  desire  to  be  clear  and 
forceful  leads  us  to  depart  from  matter-of-fact  ex- 
pression. Such  departures  are  called  figures  of 
speech.  Exclamation,  Interrogation,  contrast,  and 
climax,  considered  In  the  preceding  chapter,  are 
figures  having  to  do  with  sentence  structure.  Two 
other*  common  varieties  are  simile  and  metaphor. 
A  simile  Is  a  fully  expressed  comparison.  There 
are  three  illustrations  of  It  in  the  following  stanza. 

Blue  were  her  eyes  as  the  fairy-flax, 
Her  cheeks  like  the  dawn  of  day, 

And  her  bosom  white  as  the  hawthorn  buds 
That  ope  in  the  month  of  May. 

Notice  that  In  each  case  the  things  compared  are 
named,  the  point  of  likeness  indicated,  and  a  word 
of  comparison — like,  as — employed.  Notice  too 
that  the  things  compared  are  quite  dissimilar  In  all 
respects  save  one.  When  we  say  that  one  of  two 
pencils  Is  longer  than  the  other  we  do  not  use  sim- 
ile, since  the  comparison  Is  between  things  of  the 
same  class  or  kind.  There  Is  no  departure  from 
matter-of-fact  statement. 

305 


3o6  RHETORIC  IN  PRACTICE 

Similes  are  effective  first,  perhaps,  because  they 
add  clearness,  help  the  reader  to  get  more  com- 
pletely the  thought,  the  fancy,  the  image  in  the 
writer's  mind.  This,  which  the  writer  alone  has 
seen  or  felt,  is  declared  to  be  like  that,  which  all 
have  seen  or  felt.  We  have  not  seen  the  maiden's 
cheeks,  but  when  the  poet  tells  us  they  were  like  the 
dawn  of  day,  we  realize  that  they  were  fresh  and 
beautiful.  Each  simile,  then,  is  a  journey  to  the 
unknown  by  way  of  that  which  is  known.  Second, 
there  comes  to  the  reader  the  pleasure  of  surprise 
through  finding  that  things  apparently  so  unlike 
possess  one  characteristic  In  common.  Finally, 
that  which  a  simile  brings  to  mind  Is  often  beau- 
tiful in  itself,  or  stirring,  uplifting.  Sometimes  It 
Is  not  a  picture  but  a  memory,  or  a  story  from 
the  distant  past,  magically  summoned  forth  by  a 
few  charmed  words. 

Seldom  do  similes  come  to  any  one  through  con- 
scious effort ;  the  best  ones  slip  Into  the  mind  unin- 
vited. Even  such  as  come  spontaneously  may  well 
be  closely  scanned.  The  things  compared  may 
*  be  so  nearly  alike  that  the  element  of  surprise  will 
be  lacking,  or  both  so  unfamiliar  that  nothing  will 
be  gained  by  pointing  out  similarity.  Above  all, 
beware  of  similes  that  have  been  used  thousands 
of  times  till  they  are  no  longer  fresh.  Several 
years  ago  there  went  the  rounds  of  the  news- 
papers a  long  poem  made  up  exclusively  of 
worn-out  comparisons.  The  first  stanza  was  as 
follows : 


FIGURES  OF  SPEECH  307 

As  deaf  as  an  adder, 

As  black  as  a  crow, 
As  sharp  as  a  razor. 

As  dull  as  a  hoe, 
As  meek  as  Moses, 

As  true  as  steel. 
As  dumb  as  an  oyster, 

As  slippery 's  an  eel. 

Such  similitudes,  and  there  are  hundreds  In  dally 
use,  Impart  weakness  rather  than  strength. 

A  metaphor  is  an  Implied  comparison — a  simile 
condensed,  usually  into  a  single  word.  Marullus 
employs  metaphor  when  he  cries  out  to  the  rabble 

You  blocks,  you  stones,  you  worse  than  senseless  things ! 

So  too  does  Coleridge  In  the  line 

Swiftly,  swiftly  flew  the  ship. 

In  each  case  a  likeness  Is  Implied,  not  completely 
expressed  as  In  simile.  The  Roman  citizens  are 
like  blocks  and  stones  in  that  they  are  senseless, 
Marullus  thinks;  but  he  merely  calls  them  blocks 
and  stones,  assuming  that  the  point  of  resemblance 
Is  evident.  The  ship  is  like  a  bird  In  that  It 
moves  swiftly,  as  if  its  sails  were  wings;  but  birds 
are  not  mentioned  directly,  simply  suggested  in  the 
word  flew.  Many  similes  are  easily  changed  Into 
metaphor ;  all  metaphors  may  be  changed  Into  sim- 
iles. Simile  is  the  quieter,  more  deliberate  form 
of  expression;  metaphor  Is  swifter,  often  more 
startling. 


3o8  RHETORIC  IN  PRACTICE 

Our  common  speech  Is  crowded  with  metaphors, 
some  so  worn,  so  "  faded,"  that  they  are  no  longer 
recognized  as  figures.  It  Is  the  basis  of  perhaps 
nine-tenths  of  our  slang.  *'  Jones  plowed  to  sec- 
ond base,"  writes  the  baseball  editor.  "The 
fielding  on  both  sides  was  green,  with  saffron 
touches  J'  The  man  whose  mind  Is  not  right  Is  said 
to  be  "  off  his  trolley  " — as  If  he  were  an  electric 
car,  or  to  have  "  bats  In  his  belfry."  The  son 
who  goes  wrong  Is  a  "  black  sheep  ";  whatever  Is 
disagreeable  "  goes  against  the  grain,"  and  the  un- 
expected "  beats  the  Dutch."  It  is  hardly  neces- 
sary to  multiply  examples. 

Slang  may  have  its  uses;  frequently  it  flashes 
forth  in  humorous  guise  a  truth  that  would  seem 
commonplace  if  stated  In  commonplace  language. 
It  Is  a  time-saver.  But  unfortunately  many  slang 
expressions  are  coarse,  vulgar.  No  amount  of 
humor  atones  for  vulgarity.  Moreover,  expres- 
sions that  are  bandied  about  soon  become  cheap. 
Few  things  are  more  disgusting  than  conversation 
tricked  out  with  second-hand  wit.  Avoid  the  met- 
aphor of  slang,  then.  And  be  careful  lest  your 
metaphor  be  taken  literally,  causing  merriment 
where  merriment  Is  least  desired.  Life  magazine, 
not  long  ago,  gathered  a  number  of  expressions 
used  by  the  modern  novelist  in  describing  eyes, 
among  which  were  the  following:  "  With  her  eyes 
she  riveted  him  to  the  spot ";  "  She  permitted  her 
eyes  to  rest  upon  the  ceiling  a  moment,  and  then 
they  roamed  carelessly  about  the  room";  "  Isa- 


FIGURES  OF  SPEECH  309 

beFs  eyes  took  in  everything  that  the  room  con- 
tained." This  last  suggests  the  enraptured  tourist 
who  stood  by  the  Grand  Canal  in  Venice,  "  drink- 
ing it  all  in,"  and  the  dear  blundering  lady  who 
could  not  open  her  mouth  without  "  putting  her 
foot  in  it." 

Finally,  avoid  mixed  and  inappropriate  meta- 
phors. Oft  quoted  are  the  following  lines  from 
Addison. 

I  bridle  in  my  struggling  muse  with  pain, 
That  longs  to  launch  into  a  bolder  strain. 

The  muse  could  not  well  be  both  a  steed  and  a  ship, 
and  neither  ship  nor  steed  could  sing  acceptably. 
Another  incongruous  mixture,  likewise  oft  quoted, 
is  the  following:  "  Gentlemen  of  the  jury,  it  will 
be  for  you  to  say  whether  this  defendant  shall  be 
allowed  to  come  into  court  with  unblushing  foot- 
steps, with  the  cloak  of  hypocrisy  in  his  mouth, 
and  take  three  bullocks  out  of  my  client's  pocket 
with  impunity." 

Personification  is  a  form  of  metaphor  in  which 
something  inanimate — for  example,  a  tree,  an  ani- 
mal, or  a  quality — is  treated  as  if  it  had  mind  and 
personality.  A  low  order  of  personification  is  that 
which  implies  that  natural  objects  such  as  flowers, 
or  forces  of  nature  such  as  the  winds  or  the  ocean, 
are  not  human  beings  but  animals  of  lower  order 
than  man.  It  is  a  simple  figure.  Children  use  it 
unconsciously  when  talking  to  their  playthings. 
Poetry  is  full  of  it,  for  the  poet  realizes  that  mind, 


310  RHETORIC  IN  PRACTICE 

heart,  soul  are  more  interesting  than  Inanimate 
rocks  and  trees.  Notice  the  examples  in  the  fol- 
lowing passages. 

O  Cicero, 
I  have  seen  tempests,  when  the  scolding  winds 
Have  rlv'd  the  knotty  oaks,  and  I  have  seen 
The  ambitious  ocean  swell  and  rage  and  foam. 
To  be  exalted  with  the  threatening  clouds.   .    .    . 

Scolding,  ambitious,  rage,  and  threatening  are 
terms  applicable  to  persons,  not  to  things. 

An  allegory  is  an  expanded  metaphor  taking 
the  form  of  a  story  emphasizing  a  truth  which  the 
reader  is  left  to  discover.  When  Gareth,  who 
wishes  to  go  to  Arthur's  court  and  become  a 
knight.  Is  urged  by  his  mother  to  remain  at  home 
till  he  is  older,  contenting  himself  with  the  harm- 
less chase  and  a  "  comfortable  "  wife,  he  tells  her 
a  story.  It  is  of  a  royal  prince  who  asked  for  a 
bride;  and  the  king,  his  father,  set  two  before  him. 

One  was  fair,  strong,  arm'd — 

But  to  be  won  by  force — and  many  men 

Desired  her;  one,  good  lack,  no  man  desired. 

The  king  declared  that  unless  he  won  the  first  by 
force,  he  must  wed  the  other, 

A  red-faced  bride  who  knew  herself  so  vile, 
That  evermore  she  long'd  to  hide  herself. 

The  name  of  one  was  Fame ;  the  name  of  the  other, 
Shame.  Here,  then,  is  a  comparison  Implied  be- 
tween Gareth  and  the  royal  prince.  Just  as  the 
royal  prince  might  escape  hardship  by  accepting 


FIGURES  OF  SPEECH  311 

Shame,  so  Gareth  might,  yet  not  without  shame, 
stay  at  home  and  lead  a  safe,  comfortable  life. 
Fame,  he  is  trying  to  show  his  mother,  comes  only 
through  hardship  and  daring;  ease  and  inactivity 
are  shameful. 

Sometimes  an  allegory  is  a  metaphor  so  fully 
expanded  as  to  fill  an  entire  volume.  Bunyan's 
Pilgrim's  Progress  is  an  example  of  such.  It 
purports  to  be  the  adventures  of  Pilgrim  on  his 
long  and  perilous  journey  to  Celestial  City;  yet 
there  is  a  half-hidden  meaning.  Bunyan  is  but 
trying  to  show  the  struggles  a  mortal  must  make 
in  purging  his  character  of  sin.  The  parables  in 
the  New  Testament,  short,  imaginary  narratives 
used  by  Christ  in  his  preaching,  are  briefer  alle- 
gories; so  too  are  fables,  in  which  frequently, 
though  not  always,  the  actors  are  animals  or  inan- 
imate things.  Yet  all,  whether  long  or  short,  are 
but  metaphors,  or  in  some  cases  similes,  expanded 
into  stories;  all  contain  truths  left  for  the  reader 
to  discover.  They  are  impressive  because  stories 
are  more  interesting  than  plain  statement,  more 
easily  remembered. 

Exclamation,  interrogation,  contrast,  and  climax 
may  be  called  figures  of  form  or  arrangement; 
simile  and  metaphor  in  its  various  forms  are  called 
figures  of  comparison.  Very  closely  related  to  the 
latter  is  metonymy,*  difficult  to  define  because  there 


*  It  has  seemed  best  not  to  attempt  to  distinguish  between  synecdoche  and 
metonymy,  but  to  consider  them  as  one  figure. 


312  RHETORIC  IN  PRACTICE 

are  so  many  varieties  that  It  Is  not  easy  to  state  in 
a  few  words  its  essentials.  For  practical  purposes 
it  is  sufficient  to  define  it  awkwardly  as  a  figure  in 
which  something  is  named  by  the  name  of  some- 
thing associated  with  it.  The  commonest  forms 
are  those  in  which  the  name  of  a  part  is  substituted 
for  the  name  of  the  whole,  and  those  in  which  a 
thing  Is  given  the  name  of  something  not  a  part  of 
It  but  associated  with  it.  The  football  is  called  a 
pigskin,  the  baseball  a  rawhide — the  name  of  the 
material  being  substituted  for  the  name  of  the 
article  made  from  the  material.  We  speak  of 
shop  hands,  meaning  men  who  work  in  shops. 
Sailors  are  tars,  or  salts,  because  tar  and  salt  are 
associated  with  the  seaman's  life.  We  speak  of 
reading  Dickens,  though  of  course  we  read  not  the 
man  but  his  books.  It  would  be  uncomplimentary 
to  the  older  rhetorics  to  close  this  list  of  examples 
without  explaining  that  when  we  say  the  kettle 
boils,  we  mean  that  the  water  In  the  kettle  boils. 
In  each  case,  it  will  be  noted,  the  figure  involves 
a  transfer  or  substitution  of  names.  Seldom  if 
ever  Is  comparison  involved;  there  is  no  added 
picture  as  in  simile.  It  is  a  useful  figure  In  that  It 
focuses  attention  upon  some  one  detail  of  a  picture, 
intensifying  the  impression.  To  say  that  the  gen- 
eral advanced  with  a  force  of  bayonets  conveys  a 
more  vivid  picture,  perhaps,  than  to  say  he  ad- 
vanced with  a  force  of  soldiers.  It  is  perhaps 
more  picturesque,  a  shade  less  severe,  to  say  of  a 
man  that  he  is  too  fond  of  the  bottle  than  it  Is  to 


FIGURES  OF  SPEECH  313 

say  that  he  Is  too  fond  of  Intoxicating  liquor.  At 
any  rate,  metonymy,  like  metaphor,  saves  time. 
Often  It  makes  one  word  do  the  work  of  ten;  it 
economizes  attention  by  confining  It  to  a  single, 
significant  item. 

Hyperbole  Is  the  rhetorical  name  for  exagger- 
ation when  employed  not  for  the  purpose  of  deceiv- 
ing but  to  make  a  statement  Impressive.  The 
waves  ran  "  mountain  high,"  declares  the  poet,  not 
with  the  thought  that  his  words  will  be  taken  lit- 
erally, but  for  the  purpose  of  stirring  the  Imagi- 
nation, which  otherwise  may  picture  waves  alto- 
gether too  tame.  It  Is  a  noble  figure  when  nobly 
employed;  a  tiresome,  degrading  one  as  used  ex- 
travagantly by  many  young  people  and  not  a  few 
of  their  elders,  who  continue  to  live  though  "  tired 
to  death,"  and  declare  that  things  quite  ordinary 
are  "  just  heavenly."  There  Is  a  wide  difference 
between  the  language  of  real.  Intense  emotion  and 
language  that  is  mere  gush. 

Irony  is  quite  as  common  as  hyperbole.  It  is 
the  name  applied  to  words  which  state  the  opposite 
of  what  the  speaker  or  writer  intends  shall  be  un- 
derstood. When  Antony  Is  addressing  the  Ro- 
man rabble,  he  refers  many  times  to  Brutus  and 
the  other  conspirators  as  "  honorable  "  men.  At 
first  he  seems  to  use  the  word  sincerely,  but  as  he 
slowly  gains  the  confidence  of  his  hearers,  it  be- 
comes apparent  that  he  would  have  them  believe 
the  conspirators  quite  the  reverse  of  honorable. 
Like  hyperbole,   Irony  is  used  much  too  freely, 


314  RHETORIC  IN  PRACTICE 

thoughtlessly,  In  dally  speech,  especially  the  con- 
temptuous,  scornful,  taunting,  or  sneering  v^arlety 
known  as  sarcasm,  which  stings  and  cuts.  In 
short.  It  Is  a  strong  weapon,  effective  If  prop- 
erly employed,  yet  out  of  place  save  when  the 
speaker  feels  righteous  Indignation,  justifiable 
scorn. 

For  convenience  of  reference  the  rhetorical 
terms  employed  in  this  chapter  and  the  preceding 
one  are  here  brought  together  and  newly  defined. 

Figure  of  Speech:  Any  departure  from  plain,  ordi- 
nary expression,  for  the  purpose  of  gaining  a  desired  effect. 
Simile:  A  fully  expressed  comparison.  In  its  purest 
form  the  things  compared  are  named,  the  point  of  resem- 
blance indicated,  and  a  word  denoting  resemblance  (like, 
as,  so)  employed. 

Metaphor:  An  implied  comparison — a  simile  con- 
densed, usually  into  a  single  word. 

Personification:  A  metaphor  In  which  something  in- 
animate— for  example,  a  tree,  an  animal,  or  a  quality — is 
treated  as  if  It  had  mind  and  personality.  A  low  order 
of  personification  implies  that  natural  objects  such  as 
plants,  or  forces  of  nature  such  as  the  wind,  are  not 
human,  yet  have  the  attributes  of  animals  of  a  lower  order 
than  man. 

Allegory:  An  expanded  metaphor  taking  the  form  of 
a  story  emphasizing  a  truth  which  the  reader  is  left  to 
discover. 

Parable:  A  name  applied  almost  exclusively  to  the 
short,  imaginary  stories  used  by  Christ  in  his  preaching; 
a  species  of  allegory. 


FIGURES  OF  SPEECH  315 

Fable:  A  brief  allegorical  tale  in  which  usually, 
though  not  always,  the  characters  are  animals  or  inan- 
imate things. 

Metonymy:  A  figure  in  which  something  is  named  by 
the  name  of  something  associated  with  it. 

Hyperbole:  A  rhetorical  name  for  exaggeration  when 
employed  not  for  the  purpose  of  deceiving  but  to  make  a 
statement  impressive. 

Irony:  A  figure  in  which  the  words  employed  appar- 
ently mean  one  thing  but  in  reality  are  designed  to  convey 
a  meaning  precisely  the  opposite. 

Sarcasm:  Scornful,  contemptuous,  taunting,  or  sneer- 
ing irony. 

Contrast  or  Antithesis :  A  figure  in  which  things  are 
brought  into  prominence  by  being  placed  in  opposition. 

Climax:  An  arrangement  by  which  the  interest  in- 
creases step  by  step,  the  more  important  or  the  more  inter- 
esting following  the  less  important  or  less  interesting,  till 
an  impressive  close  is  reached. 

Interrogation :  An  opinion  expressed,  more  forcefully 
than  otherwise  would  be  possible,  in  the  form  of  a 
question. 

Exclamation:  A  sudden,  deep  emotion  expressed  in 
the  form  of  an  exclamatory  sentence  or  phrase. 


EXERCISE  197 

The  following  quotations  contain  at  least  eight 
different  figures.    Pick  them  out  and  name  them. 

I.  He  shook  the  fragment  of  his  blade 
And  shouted  "  Victory!  " 


3i6  RHETORIC  IN  PRACTICE 

2.  So  ran  the  tale  like  fire  about  the  court. 

3.  A  death-white  mist  slept  over  sand  and  sea. 

4.  A  good  father!  A  good  husband!  Ample  apology 
for  fifteen  years  of  persecution,  tyranny,  and  falsehood! 

5.  Death  is  a  black  camel,  which  kneels  at  the  gates  of  all. 

6.  The  old  philosopher  Is  still  among  us.  In  the  brown 
coat  with  the  metal  buttons,  and  the  shirt  which  ought  to 
be  at  wash,  blinking,  puffing,  rolling  his  head,  drumming 
with  his  fingers,  tearing  his  meat  like  a  tiger,  and  swal- 
lowing his  tea  in  oceans.  7.  A  widow  woman  kept  a  hen 
that  laid  an  egg  every  morning.  Thought  the  woman  to 
herself,  "  If  I  double  my  hen's  allowance  of  barley,  she 
will  lay  twice  a  day."  So  she  tried  her  plan,  and  the  hen 
became  so  fat  and  sleek  that  she  left  off  laying  altogether. 
8.  Then  shall  the  kingdom  of  heaven  be  likened  unto  ten 
virgins  which  took  their  lamps  and  went  forth  to  meet  the 
bridegroom.  And  five  of  them  were  wise,  and  five  were 
foolish.  They  that  were  foolish  took  their  lamps,  and 
took  no  oil  with  them ;  but  the  wise  took  oil  in  their  ves- 
sels with  their  lamps.  While  the  bridegroom  tarried,  they 
all  slumbered  and  slept.  And  at  midnight  there  was  a 
cry  made.  Behold,  the  bridegroom  cometh;  go  ye  out  to 
meet  him.  Then  all  those  virgins  arose  and  trimmed 
their  lamps.  And  the  foolish  said  unto  the  wise.  Give 
us  of  your  oil,  for  our  lamps  are  gone  out.  But  the  wise 
answered,  saying,  Not  so,  lest  there  be  not  enough  for  us 
and  you;  but  go  ye  rather  to  them  that  sell,  and  buy  for 
yourselves.  And  while  they  went  to  buy,  the  bride- 
groom came;  and  they  that  were  ready  went  in  with  him 
to  the  marriage;  and  the  door  was  shut.  Afterwards 
came  also  the  other  virgins,  saying.  Lord,  Lord,  open  to 
us.  But  he  answered  and  said,  Verily  I  say  unto  you,  I 
know  you  not. 


FIGURES  OF  SPEECH  317 

EXERCISE  198 

Here  are  similes  to  study.  In  each  case  name 
the  two  things  compared,  the  point  of  resemblance, 
and  the  word  used  to  denote  likeness.  Which 
ones  present  pictures?  Which  ones  suggest  sto- 
ries? Which  ones  take  you  to  nature?  to  his- 
tory? to  literature?  In  which  ones  is  the  element 
of  surprise  great?  Which  ones  seem  common- 
place? How  many  can  you  turn  into  metaphor? 
Consider  in  each  case  whether  the  comparison  is 
an  appropriate  one.  What  figures  other  than 
simile  can  you  find? 

1.  And  fast  through  the  midnight  dark  and  drear, 

Through  the  whistling  sleet  and  snow, 
Like  a  sheeted  ghost,  the  vessel  swept 
Tow'rds  the  reef  of  Norman's  Woe. 

2.  The  bride  hath  paced  into  the  hall ; 

Red  as  a  rose  is  she. 

3.  'Mid  the  sharp  short  emerald  wheat,  scarce  risen  three 

fingers  well, 
The  wild  tulip,  at  end  of  its  tube,  blows  out  its  great 

red  bell 
Like  a  thin  clear  bubble  of  blood,  for  the  children  to 

pick  and  sell. 

4.  And  I  saw  him,  after,  stand 

High  on  a  heap  of  slain,  from  spur  to  plume 
Red  as  the  rising  sun  with  heathen  blood. 

5.  Day  after  day,  day  after  day, 

We  stuck,  nor  breath  nor  motion; 
As  idle  as  a  painted  ship 
.Upon  a  painted  ocean. 


3i8  RHETORIC  IN  PRACTICE 

6.  As  fire  drives  out  fire,  so  pity  pity. 

7.  Then  after  one  long  slope  was  mounted  [they]  saw, 
Bowl-shaped,  thro'  tops  of  many  thousand  pines 

A  gloomy-shaded  hollow  slowly  sink 
To  westward — in  the  depths  whereof  a  mere, 
Round  as  the  red  eye  of  an  eagle-owl, 
Under  the  half-dead  sunset  glared. 

8.  Why,  man,  he  doth  bestride  the  narrow  world 
Like  a  Colossus,  and  we  petty  men 

Walk  under  his  huge  legs  and  peep  about 
To  find  ourselves  dishonorable  graves. 

9.  And  all  the  year  long  at  the  villa  [there  is]  nothing 

to  see  though  you  linger. 
Except  yon  cypress  that  points  like  death's  lean  lifted 
forefinger. 

10.  Let  torture  strain  the  truth  till  It  be  white 
As  snow  thrice-sifted  by  the  frozen  wind. 

11.  'TIs  with  our  judgments  as  our  watches;  none 
Go  just  alike,  yet  each  believes  his  own. 

12.  Lo,  where  thy  father  Lot  beside  the  hearth 
Lies  like  a  log,  and  all  but  smouldered  out! 

13.  With  sloping  masts  and  dripping  prow, 

As  who  pursued  with  yell  and  blow 
Still  treads  the  shadow  of  his  foe 

And  forward  bends  his  head, 
The  ship  drove  fast,  loud  roared  the  blast. 

And  southward  aye  we  fled. 

14.  But  pleasures  are  like  poppies  spread, 
You  seize  the  flow'r,  Its  bloom  is  shed ; 
Or  like  the  snow  falls  In  the  river, 

A  moment  white — then  melts  forever; 

Or  like  the  borealls  race. 

That  flits  ere  you  can  point  their  place; 


FIGURES  OF  SPEECH  319 

Or  like  the  rainbow's  lovely  form 
Evanishing  amid  the  storm. 

15.  From  bastion'd  walls 

Like  threaded  spiders,  one  by  one,  we  dropt, 
And  flying  reach'd  the  frontier. 

16.  And  I  sat  down  and  wrote 

In  such  a  hand  as  when  a  field  of  corn 
Bows  all  its  ears  before  a  roaring  East. 

17.  And  all  her  thoughts  as  fair  within  her  eyes 
As  bottom  agates  seen  to  wave  and  float 

In  crystal  currents  of  clear  moving  seas. 

18.  Our  years  are  like  the  shadows 

On  sunny  hills  that  lie, 
Or  grasses  in  the  meadows 

That  blossom  but  to  die; 
A  sleep,  a  dream,  a  story. 

By  strangers  quickly  told, 
An  unremaining  glory 

Of  things  that  soon  are  old. 

19.  O  Jerusalem,  Jerusalem,  thou  that  killest  the  proph- 
ets, and  stonest  them  which  are  sent  unto  thee,  how  often 
would  I  have  gathered  thy  children  together,  even  as  a 
hen  gathereth  her  chickens  under  her  wings,  and  ye  would 
not!  20.  As  a  falcon  upon  the  mountains,  swiftest  of 
winged  things,  swoopeth  fleetly  after  a  trembling  dove;  and 
she  before  him  fleeth,  while  he  with  shrill  screams  hard  at 
hand  still  darteth  at  her,  for  his  heart  urgeth  him  to 
seize  her;  so  Achilles  in  hot  haste  flew  straight  for  him, 
and  Hector  fled  beneath  the  Trojans'  walls,  and  plied 
swift  knees.  21.  For  we  must  needs  die,  and  are  as 
water  spilt  upon  the  ground,  which  cannot  be  gathered  up 
again.  22.  Like  Achilles  of  old,  each  strong  man  has  his 
vulnerable  spot.     23.  The  work  an  unknown  good  man 


320  RHETORIC  IN  PRACTICE 

has  done  is  like  a  vein  of  water  flowing  hidden  under- 
ground, secretly  making  the  ground  green.  24.  As  the 
sun,  writes  Bishop  Trench,  can  image  itself  alike  in  a  tiny 
dewdrop,  or  in  the  mighty  ocean,  and  can  do  it,  though 
on  a  different  scale,  as  perfectly  in  the  one  as  in  the  other, 
so  the  spirit  of  poetry  can  dwell  in  and  glorify  alike  a 
word  and  an  Iliad.  25.  Stevenson  says  that  we  see  places 
through  our  humours  as  through  differently  colored  glasses. 
26.  The  little,  narrow,  crooked  town  of  Dover  hid  itself 
away  from  the  beach,  and  ran  its  head  into  the  chalk 
cliifs,  like  a  marine  ostrich.  27.  First  it  was  hot  as  an 
oven,  then  cold  as  ice ;  but  we  were  all  as  lively  as  crickets 
and  gay  as  larks.  28.  Although  smart  as  a  whip,  unfor- 
tunately he  is  as  deaf  as  a  post  and  blind  as  a  bat. 


EXERCISE  199 

Here  are  metaphors.  In  each  case  name  the 
tzvo  things  compared  and  point  out  the  word  or 
words  which  imply  similarity.  Expand  each  met- 
aphor, if  possible,  into  a  fully  expressed  simile. 
Which  are  personifications?  Which  suggest  a  pic- 
ture? a  story?  Which  do  you  like  best?  What 
figures  other  than  metaphor  do  you  discover? 

1.  The  sails  at  noon  left  off  their  tune. 

2.  The  little  brook  heard  it  and  built  him  a  roof 
'Neath  which  he  could  house  him,  winter-proof." 

3.  He  watched  the  wheeling  eddies  boil. 

4.  His  honor  rooted  in  dishonor  stood. 

5.  He  was  all  stiletto  and  mask. 

6.  The  curfew  tolls  the  knell  of  parting  day. 


FIGURES  OF  SPEECH  321 

7.  There  is  a  tide  in  the  affairs  of  men, 
Which,  taken  at  its  flood,  leads  on  to  fortune, 
Omitted,  all  the  voyage  of  their  life 

Is  bound  in  shallows  and  in  miseries. 

8.  I'll  about 
And  drive  away  the  vulgar  from  the  streets; 
So  do  you  too,  where  you  perceive  them  thick. 
These  growing  feathers  pluck'd  from  Csesar's  wing 
Will  make  him  fly  an  ordinary  pitch 

Who  else  would  soar  above  the  view  of  men, 
And  keep  us  all  in  fearful  servitude. 

9.  And  ever,  against  eating  cares. 
Lap  me  in  soft  Lydian  airs 
Married  to  immortal  verse. 

10.  Then  from  where  he  sat 

At  Arthur's  right,  with  smiling  face  arose. 
With  smiling  face  and  frowning  heart,  a  prince 
In  the  mid  might  and  flourish  of  his  May, 
Gawain. 

11.  Love  Virtue;  she  alone  is  free. 
She  can  teach  ye  how  to  climb 
Higher  than  the  sphery  chime; 
Or  if  Virtue  feeble  were. 
Heaven  itself  would  stoop  to  her. 

12.  Thereat  the  Lady  stretch'd  a  vulture  throat 
And  shot  from  crooked  lips  a  haggard  smile. 

13.  This  rudeness  is  a  sauce  to  his  good  wit, 
Which  gives  men  stomach  to  digest  his  words 
With  better  appetite. 

14.  Wee,  modest,  crimson-tipped  flow'r, 
Thou's  met  me  in  an  evil  hour; 


322  RHETORIC  IN  PRACTICE 

For  I  maun  crush  amang  the  stour 

Thy  slender  stem; 
To  spare  thee  now  is  past  my  pow'r, 

Thou  bonnie  gem. 


EXERCISE  200 

What  figures  do  you  recognize  in  the  following 
time-zvorn  phrases  f  Expand  each  into  a  complete 
simile, 

I.  Every tning  Is  in  apple  pie  order.  2.  Wait  till  I  get 
my  back  up.  3.  He  has  an  axe  to  grind.  4.  Your  cake 
is  dough.  5.  It's  a  drug  on  the  market.  6.  He  can't 
hold  a  candle  to  some  I've  seen.  7.  He's  a  big  gun;  the 
rest  are  but  small-fry.  8.  His  nose  is  out  of  joint;  he 
seems  down  in  the  mouth.  9.  Wait  till  my  ship  comes 
in.  10.  This  style  is  all  the  go.  11.  Don't  monkey  with  the 
saw.  12.  Is  he  up  to  snuff?  13.  He  handles  the  ribbons 
well.  14.  That  took  the  shine  all  off.  15.  See  the  poor 
wall-flowers.  16.  I  should  like  a  square  meal.  17.  Slow 
coach!  18.  Let's  take  French  leave.  19.  You're  a  brick 
— you  take  the  cake!  20.  The  foregoing  expressions  are 
a  mere  drop  in  the  bucket. 


EXERCISE  201 

With  few  exceptions  the  following  are  from  a 
collection  of  twisted  metaphors  recently  published 
in  the  Christian  World  (London),  Point  out  the 
absurdities. 


FIGURES  OF  SPEECH  323 

I.  The  harvest  which  the  present  Government  has  sown 
is  already  coming  home  to  roost.  2.  The  debate  in  the 
House  of  Lords  has,  I  think,  finally  cleared  the  air.  We 
know  at  last  whither  the  country  is  being  steered.  There 
is  the  figurehead  with  his  hand  on  the  rudder ;  there  is  the 
man  that  moves  the  figurehead.  The  figurehead  is  Mr. 
Balfour;  the  man  is  Mr.  Chamberlain.  3.  Mr.  Mc- 
Kenna's  sword  was  an  overloaded  pistol  which,  being  hung 
up  in  a  tight  corner  lest  it  should  burst,  pretended  to  be 
dead  until  it  got  up  and  trotted  home  on  the  friendly  back 
of  the  Bishop  of  St.  Asaph.  4.  The  flood-gates  of  irre- 
ligion  and  intemperance  are  stalking  arm  in  arm  through- 
out the  land.  5.  This  bill  effects  such  a  change  that  the 
last  leap  in  the  dark  was  a  mere  flea-bite.  6.  That  is 
the  marrow  of  the  Education  Act,  and  it  will  not  be 
taken  out  by  Dr.  Clifford  or  anybody  else.  It  is  founded 
on  a  granite  foundation,  and  speaks  in  a  voice  not  to  be 
drowned  in  sectarian  clamor.  7.  The  government  has  got 
rid  of  the  barbed-wire  entanglements  and  is  now  in  smooth 
water.  8.  If  we  give  the  House  of  Lords  rope  enough, 
they  will  soon  fill  up  the  cup  of  their  iniquity.  9.  Though 
the  Tories  keep  dragging  the  Home-Rule  red  herring 
across  our  path,  it  misses  fire  every  time.  10.  It  is  hoped 
that  some  of  the  seed  sown  will  not  fall  on  deaf  ears. 
II.  I  smell  a  rat;  I  see  it  floating  through  the  air;  and, 
by  heavens,  I'll  nip  it  in  the  bud!  12.  Japan  has  leapt 
from  rung  to  rung  of  the  ladder  of  national  greatness,  and 
promises  to  be  as  leaven  to  the  whole  East,  rousing,  vital- 
izing, developing  what  has  lain  in  the  valley  of  dry  bones 
for  many  centuries.  13.  Denmark  is  a  little  tongue  of 
land  holding  on  by  its  eyelids. 


324  RHETORIC  IN  PRACTICE 


EXERCISE  202 

Show  that  in  the  following  examples  of  meton- 
ymy there  is  in  each  case  an  exchange  of  names 
between  things  associated. 

I.  The  pen  Is  mightier  than  the  sword.  2.  We  should 
respect  the  cloth.  3.  Which  exerts  the  greater  influence, 
press  or  pulpit?  4.  The  table  was  excellent;  no  one 
could  complain  of  the  board.  5.  Take  care  not  to  break 
the  china.  6.  Our  braves  soon  put  the  redskins  to  flight. 
7.  Letters  flourished  as  never  before.  8.  Shall  we  go 
by  trolley?  9.  Sixty  souls  were  lost.  10.  He  unfurled 
the  Stars  and  Stripes.  11.  Let  us  honor  the  Blue  and  the 
Gray.  12.  The  lumberman  pulled  off  his  cowhides.  13. 
She  was  a  lass  of  fifteen  summers.  14.  Let's  take  our 
wheels.  15.  It  was  a  fleet  of  twenty  sails.  16.  The 
ardent  wooer  won  her  hand.  17.  There  must  always 
be  Rockefellers  and  Carnegies  as  well  as  the  "  submerged 
tenth."  18.  The  force  advanced  rapidly,  our  gallants 
never  flinching.  19.  Have  you  read  the  morning  paper? 
20.  My  love  is  like  the  red,  red  rose.  21.  He  sheathed 
his  blade.  22.  First  came  the  speech  from  the  crown. 
23.  Death  is  not  easily  escaped,  try  it  who  will ;  but  every 
living  soul  among  the  children  of  men  dwelling  upon 
earth  goeth  of  necessity  unto  his  destined  place,  where 
the  body,  fast  in  its  narrow  bed,  sleepeth  after  the  feast. 

24.  The  hawthorn  bush,  with  seats  beneath  the  shade 
For  talking  age  and  whispering  lovers  made. 

25.  And  Earl  Doorm 
Struck  with  the  knife's  haft  hard  against  the  board, 
And  call'd  for  flesh  and  wine  to  feed  his  spears. 


FIGURES  OF  SPEECH  325 

26.  At  her  left  a  child, 

In  shining  draperies,  headed  like  a  star, 
Her  maiden  babe,  a  double  April  old, 
Aglaia  slept. 


EXERCISE  203 

What  figure  is  illustrated  in  such  adjectives  as 
HERCULEAN,  AUGEAN,  ATLANTEAN?     What  Other 

proper  adjectives  can  you  think  of  that  deserve  to 
be  called  figures? 


EXERCISE  204 

Bring  to  class  five  similes  and  five  metaphors 
which  you  have  found  in  your  recent  reading. 


CHAPTER  XXIII 
THE    PARAGRAPH 

A  GROUP  of  related  sentences — related  In  that 
they  are  brought  together  to  accomplish  some  one 
thing — Is  called  a  paragraph.  It  may  stand  alone, 
complete  In  Itself,  or  It  may  form  part  of  a  longer 
composition.  It  may  contain  many  words,  three 
hundred  perhaps  being  an  extreme  number,  or  very 
few.  This  we  learned  years  ago,  no  doubt,  and 
also  that  the  first  line  of  each  paragraph  should  be 
indented. 

Narrative,  explanatory,  descriptive,  and  argu- 
mentative are  familiar  terms  applied  to  paragraphs 
according  as  the  subject-matter  Is  narration,  ex- 
planation, description,  or  argument.  Introductory, 
transitional,  and  concluding  or  summarizing  are 
terms  Indicating  certain  duties  sometimes  per- 
formed by  the  paragraph  when  It  Is  a  part  of  a 
longer  composition.  These  too  are  familiar,  yet 
each  calls  for  a  little  explanation. 

"  My  sentence  Is  for  open  war,''  abruptly  begins 
the  fallen  angel  Moloch  in  his  speech  to  his  fellow 
chieftains  In  Pandemonium;  and  we  feel  that  he 
could  not  have  made  a  more  Impressive  start.  A 
beginning  thus  abrupt,  however,  Is  not  always  ad- 

326 


THE  PARAGRAPH  327 

visable.  Sometimes  It  is  better  to  lead  up  to  the 
subject  gradually  by  means  of  a  sentence  or  two, 
perhaps  an  entire  paragraph,  bearing  to  the  rest  of 
the  composition  sortiewhat  the  relationship  a  porch 
bears  to  the  mansion  to  which  it  gives  entrance. 
Instead  of  beginning  bluntly  with  some  such  state- 
ment as  We  started  Friday  mornings  taking  the 
eight  o^clock  express  from  Atlanta,  an  account  of 
a  journey  might  better,  possibly,  begin  with  an  in- 
troductory paragraph  stating  the  purpose  of  the 
trip,  telling  who  were  in  the  party,  and  giving  other 
similar  items  of  interest.  Yet  it  is  far  better  to 
omit  such  preliminaries  than  to  make  the  intro- 
duction so  long  through  unnecessary  explanation 
that  it  becomes  tiresome.  School  compositions  are, 
too  frequently,  largely  porch ;  the  mansion  is  over- 
shadowed. 

Not  uncommonly  abrupt  endings  are  as  effect- 
ive as  abrupt  beginnings.  Surely  it  is  better  to 
stop  abruptly  than  to  continue  on  and  on  without 
adding  anything  of  interest.  But  there  are  times 
when  a  concluding  or  summarizing  paragraph  is 
of  great  service.  The  account  of  the  journey 
proper  having  been  completed,  it  may  be  well  to 
end  with  a  few  backward-glancing  sentences  re- 
viewing the  entire  trip,  perhaps  telling  what  of  all 
that  has  been  seen  or  heard  or  done  stands  out 
most  clearly  in  memory,  what  has  been  most  pleas- 
ant, what  least  agreeable.  The  summary  is  ex- 
ceptionally useful  In  argumentative  writing  where, 
a  number  of  arguments  having  been  given  at  con- 


328  RHETORIC  IN  PRACTICE 

siderable  length,  all  are  finally  restated  in  con« 
densed  form.  The  advantage  is  evident.  The 
summary  selects,  rearranges,  and  puts  into  a  small 
package,  as  it  were,  whatever  it  is  desirable  that 
the  reader  should  carry  away. 

Abrupt  transitions  too  are  not  uncommon.  Ma- 
caulay,  a  skilled  English  essayist,  often  passes 
from  topic  to  topic  so  unexpectedly  that  for  the 
moment  the  reader  is  confused;  yet  the  final  effect 
is  good.  The  transitional  paragraph,  however,  is 
sometimes  needed.  We  find  it  in  good  prose,  a 
few  sentences  letting  the  reader  know  that  one 
topic  is  finished,  another  about  to  be  taken  up. 
Frequently  it  is  a  combination  of  summary  and 
introduction.  Whatever  its  form,  it  should  be 
brief;  a  sentence  often  serves  quite  as  well  as  a 
paragraph,  and  commonly  a  single  phrase  is  suf- 
ficient to  bridge  the  gap  or  point  the  way. 
y  Just  as  compositions  of  some  length  contain  in- 
troductory, transitional,  and  concluding  para- 
graphs, so  too  single  paragraphs  may  call  for 
introductory,  transitional,  and  concluding  sen- 
tences. They  may  also  contain  what  is  known  as 
the  topical  sentence.  A  good  paragraph  possesses 
unity,  has  a  central  idea.  This  central  idea  is  like 
the  hub  to  a  wheel.  Remove  the  hub  and  out  fall 
the  spokes.  The  topical  sentence,  as  its  name  im- 
plies, gives  this  idea,  or  at  least  lets  the  reader 
know  what  the  paragraph  is  about — announces  the 
subject.  Unlike  the  hub,  it  does  not  occupy  a  cen- 
tral position,  as  a  rule;  its  natural  place  is  at  or 


THE  PARAGRAPH  329 

near  the  beginning.  Sometimes  It  Is  not  needed 
at  all,  the  central  purpose  which  binds  the  sentences 
Into  unity  being  evident  without  It.  The  Impor- 
tant part  played  by  the  topical  sentence  In  para- 
graph structure  Is  shown  In  the  following  buUdlng- 
plans. 

First  plan:  Begin  a  narrative  or  descriptive  par- 

^  agraph  with  a  topical  sentence  which  furnishes  an 
outline,  and  follow  this  with  sentences  giving  de- 
tails. Last  Saturday,  the  topical  sentence  may 
state,  /  spent  a  most  enjoyable  day  in  the  woods. 
This  Is  but  an  outline;  It  calls  for  details,  an  ac- 
count of  the  Incidents  which  made  the  day  enjoy- 
able. When  dressed  in  his  masquerading  costume, 
his  appearance  was  most  ludicrous.  The  portrait 
in  this  sentence  Is  but  an  outline ;  descriptive  details 
are  needed  to  explain  the  adjective  ludicrous. 
To  begin  with  an  outline  statement  and  follow 

'  this  with  particulars  Is  so  natural  that  It  hardly 
needs  emphasizing.  The  real  difficulty  arises  In 
determining  the  order  In  which  particulars  should 
be  given.  In  narration,  the  chronological  order  is 
evidently  best.  In  description,  the  difficulty  is 
greater;  perhaps  the  simplest  way  Is  to  pass  from 
one  Item  to  that  which  Is  next  In  place.  Certainly 
it  will  not  do,  when  describing  a  building  or  a 
person,  for  example,  to  skip  about  unsystem- 
atlcally;  there  must  be  arrangement  of  some 
kind. 

Second  plan:   Begin  an   explanatory  paragraph 
with  a  topical  sentence  general  in  character  and 


330  RHETORIC  IN  PRACTICE 

follow  it  with  detailed  explanation.  The  explain- 
ing may  be  little  more  than  an  enumeration,  as  in 
a  paragraph  beginning  with  this  sentence:  Of  all 
the  boys  in  the  class,  I  remember  but  four  dis- 
tinctly.  It  may  call  for  definition.  The  statement 
Lincoln  was  a  self-made  man  might  be  misleading 
were  it  not  followed  by  a  detailed  definition  of 
what  is  meant  by  self-made.  Many  have  gained  a 
good  education  without  ever  attending  college. 
This  calls  for  examples  or  illustrations.  A  better 
idea  of  CromwelV s  character  may  be  had  through 
comparing  him  with  Napoleon,  noting  points  of 
resemblance  and  points  of  dissimilarity.  Here  the 
topical  sentence  heralds  an  extended  comparison. 
Enumeration,  definition,  illustration,  example,  and 
comparison  are  words  to  keep  In  mind  when  writ- 
ing explanatory  paragraphs. 

The  best  arrangement  of  items  Is  more  difficult 
to  discover  In  explanation  than  In  description  or  In 
narration.  Not  always  can  time  or  place  order  be 
followed.  Frequently  it  Is  best  to  begin  with  that 
which  will  be  most  easily  understood  and  advance 
gradually  towards  the  more  difficult.  Sometimes  it 
is  well  to  arrange  items  In  the  order  of  their  Impor- 
tance or  their  interest  to  the  reader.  No  general 
rule  can  be  given. 

Third  plan:  Begin  an  argumentative  paragraph 
with  a  topical  sentence  containing  the  proposition 
and  follow  it  with  proofs.  This  is,  of  course,  the 
natural  thing  to  do ;  nor  is  it  necessary  to  add  that 
the  arguments  may  well  be  arranged  in  the  order  of 


THE  PARAGRAPH  331 

their  Importance.  Sometimes  it  is  best  to  let  the 
arguments  precede  the  topical  sentence,  leading 
up  to  It  gradually.  This  Is  especially  desirable 
when  that  which  one  wishes  to  establish  as  true  is 
something  which  one's  readers  are  unwilling  to 
accept. 

Fourth  plan:  Construct  the  paragraph  on  the 
balance  or  climax  plan.  Macaulay  Is  exceptionally 
skilful  in  his  use  of  the  balance.  As  the  eye  of 
the  reader  runs  from  line  to  line,  not  infrequently 
it  notes,  about  midway  In  the  paragraph,  the  little 
word  but  serving  as  pivot.  What  goes  before  Is 
balanced  by  that  which  follows,  and  a  strong  con- 
trast is  obtained.  Many  of  his  paragraphs  are  con- 
structed climax-wise.  The  following  Illustration, 
however.  Is  not  from  Macaulay  but  from  Burke's 
Impeachment  of  Warren  Hastings.  Notice  how 
sentence  follows  sentence  with  increasing  force  till 
a  most  Impressive  end  Is  reached. 

"  Therefore  hath  it  with  all  confidence  been 
ordered  by  the  Commons  of  Great  Britain,  that  I 
impeach  Warren  Hastings  of  high  crimes  and  mis- 
demeanors. I  Impeach  him  in  the  name  of  the 
Commons'  House  of  Parliament,  whose  trust  he 
has  betrayed.  I  Impeach  him  in  the  name  of  the 
English  nation,  whose  honor  he  has  sullied.  I 
Impeach  him  in  the  name  of  the  people  of  India, 
whose  rights  he  has  trodden  under  foot,  and  whose 
country  he  has  turned  into  a  desert.  Lastly,  In 
the  name  of  human  nature  Itself,  in  the  name  of 
both  sexes,  In  the  name  of  every  age.  In  the  name 


332  RHETORIC  IN  PRACTICE 

of  every  rank,  I  Impeach  the  common  enemy  and 
oppressor  of  all." 

There  are  still  other  building-plans,  but  perhaps 
those  given  above  are  all  that  It  Is  wise  to  place 
before  young  writers.  Indeed,  there  Is  no  little 
danger  In  making  too  extended  a  study  of  the  para- 
graph lest  It  lead  one  to  think  that  whatever  he 
has  to  say  must  be  cast  in  some  particular  form. 
The  main  thing,  after  all,  Is  to  know  pretty  defi- 
nitely, before  putting  pen  to  paper,  what  one  wishes 
to  say;  and  knowing  this,  to  say  It  so  plainly, 
clearly,  that  the  reader  will  easily  understand,  so 
earnestly  that  the  reader  will  not  only  understand 
but  will  be  impressed.  If  the  writer  has  but 
learned  to  "  think  straight,"  his  sentences  will  fall 
naturally  Into  orderly  paragraph  groups. 


EXERCISE  205 

Construct  paragraphs,  one  or  more  as  the  in- 
structor may  direct,  using  the  following  topical 
sentences, 

I.  Last  Saturday  was  for  me  an  unusually  busy  time. 
(Give  the  incidents,  real  or  imaginary,  needed  to  explain 
the  word  busy.  Try  to  close  with  a  sentence  bringing  the 
reader  back  to  the  topical  sentence.)  2.  It  requires  but 
patience  and  a  little  skill  to  make  a .  (Give  direc- 
tions in  careful  detail.  Here  too  perhaps  you  can  close 
with  a  general  statement.)  3.  Drivers  of  automobiles  are 
oftentimes  inexcusably  reckless.      (Expand  by  means  of 


THE  PARAGRAPH  333 

illustrations  or  Incidents.  Follow  the  Incidents,  if  you 
can,  with  a  strong  concluding  sentence.)  4.  The  dic- 
tionary does  far  more  than  simply  give  the  meanings  of 
words.  ( In  explaining  what  else  the  dictionary  does,  fol- 
low the  climax  order,  reserving  to  the  last  that  which  to 
you  seems  most  important.)  5.  To  the  uninitiated,  foot- 
ball seems  very  simple.  (Devote  a  few  sentences  to  a 
development  of  this  idea;  then  produce  a  sharp  contrast 
by  showing  how  complicated  the  game  really  Is — how 
much  skill  it  requires.)  6.  It  would  not  be  easy  to  imag- 
ine two  people  differing  more  widely  in  appearance  and 

character  than  A and  B .      (Before  beginning, 

try    to    determine    which    will    be    better,    to    devote 

the    first    part    of    the    paragraph    to    A alone, 

the     rest     to     B ,     or     to     employ     a     series     of 

point  for  point  comparisons.)  7.  Which  shall  it  be,  rugs 
or  a  carpet?  (Expand  by  considering  the  advantages  and 
disadvantages  of  each;  then  close  with  a  sentence  contain- 
ing your  final  decision.)     8.  The  view  from  the  brow  of 

hill  Is  a  sufficient  reward  for  the  climb.     (First 

give  an  outline  sketch ;  follow  this  with  orderly  details ; 
close  with  a  general  statement.)  9.  And  here  Is  my  den. 
(Imagine  that  some  one  is  with  you,  now  on  the  threshold, 
now  following  you  about.  Go  from  general  description 
to  particular,  then  back  to  general.)      10.  I  can  think  of 

reasons  why  I  have  selected college.    (Try 

to  discover  an  effective  order  of  presentation.) 


EXERCISE  206 

Expand  the  following  sentences,  two  or  more  of 
them  as  the  instructor  may  direct,  into  paragraphs. 


334  .  RHETORIC  IN  PRACTICE 

I.  Not  all  that  one  hears  is  to  be  believed.  2.  For 
these  reasons,  then,  I  think  that  examinations,  though  of 
course  disagreeable,  should  not  be  done  away  with.  3. 
Thus  ended  our  pleasant  holiday.  (Assuming  that  the 
holiday  has  been  described  in  detail,  follow  this  topical 
sentence  with  two  or  three  reviewing  sentences.)  4. 
is  an  ideal  schoolmate.  (Let  the  rest  of  the  para- 
graph explain  what  to  you  the  word  ideal  means.)  5. 
One  should  not  look  a  gift-horse  in  the  mouth.  (Explain 
fully  what  this  means,  perhaps  using  an  illustration  or 
two.)  6.  It  never  rains  but  it  pours.  (Explain  by 
means  of  illustrations.  Perhaps  you  can  manage  to  close 
with  a  sentence  containing  the  wise  saying.)  7.  A  large 
school  is  like  a  little  city.  (Carry  out  the  comparison.) 
8.  Addison  says  that  only  "  men  of  fine  parts  "  deserve 
to  be  hanged.  (Explain  fully,  paying  particular  atten- 
tion to  the  expression  "  fine  parts.")  9.  What  we  lack  is 
school  spirit.  (Tell  what  you  mean  by  school  spirit, 
then  strengthen  the  definition  by  means  of  illustrations.) 
10.  There  are  several  plans  which  one  may  follow  in 
building  paragraphs. 


EXERCISE  207 

Here  are  initial  sentences  from  a  number  of  con- 
secutive paragraphs  from  Macaulay's  Life  of 
Johnson.  In  which  of  these  do  you  discover  words 
referring  to  what  precedes?  In  which  do  you  dis- 
cover a  hint  of  what  the  rest  of  the  paragraph  is 
about? 

I.  While  leading  this  vagrant  and  miserable  life,  John- 
son fell  in  love.     2.  His  marriage  made  it  necessary  for 


THE  PARAGRAPH  335 

him  to  exert  himself  more  strenuously  than  he  had  hitherto 
done.  3.  At  length  Johnson,  in  the  twenty-eighth  year  of 
his  age,  determined  to  seek  his  fortune  in  the  capital  as  a 
literary  adventurer.  4.  Never,  since  literature  became  a 
calling  in  England,  had  it  been  a  less  gainful  calling  than 
at  the  time  when  Johnson  took  up  residence  in  London. 
5.  Some  time  appears  to  have  elapsed  before  Johnson  was 
able  to  form  any  literary  connection  from  which  he  could 
expect  more  than  bread  for  the  day  which  was  passing 
over  him.  6.  The  effect  of  the  privations  and  sufferings 
which  he  endured  at  this  time  was  discernible  to  the  last 
in  his  temper  and  his  deportment.  7.  About  a  year  after 
Johnson  had  begun  to  reside  in  London,  he  was  fortunate 
enough  to  obtain  regular  employment  from  Cave,  an  en- 
terprising and  intelligent  bookseller,  who  was  proprietor 
and  editor  of  the  Gentleman's  Magazine.  8.  A  few 
weeks  after  Johnson  had  entered  on  these  obscure  labors, 
he  published  a  work  which  at  once  placed  him  high  among 
the  writers  of  his  age.  9.  Johnson's  London  appeared 
without  his  name  in  May,  1738. 

EXERCISE  208 

In  the  following  paragraphs,  point  out  words  or 
phrases  which  serve  to  link  sentence  to  sentence. 

In  the  midst  of  his  discourse  the  bell  rang  for  dinner, 
where  the  gentleman  I  have  been  speaking  of  had  the 
pleasure  of  seeing  the  huge  jack  he  had  caught  served  up 
for  the  first  dish  in  a  most  sumptuous  manner.  Upon 
our  sitting  down  to  it  he  gave  a  long  account  how  he 
had  hooked  it,  played  with  it,  foiled  it,  and  at  length 
drew  it  out  upon  the  bank,  with  several  other  particulars 


336  RHETORIC  IN  PRACTICE 

that  lasted  all  the  first  course.  A  dish  of  wild  fowl  that 
came  afterwards  furnished  conversation  for  the  rest  of 
the  dinner,  which  concluded  with  a  late  invention  of 
Will's  for  improving  the  quail-pipe. 

I  was  yesterday  very  much  surprised  to  hear  my  old 
friend,  in  the  midst  of  the  service,  calling  out  to  one  John 
Matthews  to  mind  what  he  was  about,  and  not  disturb  the 
congregation.  This  John  Matthews,  it  seems,  is  remark- 
able for  being  an  idle  fellow,  and  at  that  time  was  kicking 
his  heels  for  his  diversion.  This  authority  of  the  knight, 
though  exerted  in  that  odd  measure  which  accompanies 
him  in  all  circumstances  of  life,  has  a  very  good  effect  upon 
the  parish,  who  are  not  polite  enough  to  see  anything 
ridiculous  in  his  behavior;  besides  that  the  general  good 
sense  and  worthiness  of  his  character  make  his  friends 
observe  these  little  singularities  as  foils  that  rather  set 
off  than  blemish  his  good  qualities. 

EXERCISE  209 

Here  is  a  schoolgirl  composition,  just  as  it  was 
received  by  the  instructor  except  that  the  inden- 
tions have  been  filled  up.  How  should  it  be  para^ 
graphed? 


A  DESERTED  FARMHOUSE 

Standing  by  a  lonely  country  road,  a  mile  or  more  from  the 
nearest  village,  there  is  an  old  deserted  farmhouse.  It  is  a 
low  two-storied  house,  originally  white,  but  now  gray  and 
weather-beaten  and  slowly  crumbling  to  ruin.  The  signs 
of  its  desertedness  are  readily  seen.  The  grass  has  grown 
up  high,  almost  completely  hiding  the  path  from  the  door- 


THE  PARAGRAPH  337 

step  to  the  road,  only  a  few  of  the  windows  have  panes  of 
glass  in  them,  the  roof  is  full  of  holes,  the  broken  blinds 
swing  back  and  forth  with  the  gentlest  breeze,  the  old 
well  under  the  shade  of  the  apple-tree  is  moss-covered, 
and  the  old  stone  wall  has  fallen  down  in  many  places. 
Behind  the  house,  the  empty  farm-yard  and  cornfields  also 
show  that  they  have  been  deserted.  Beyond  the  old  stone 
wall,  on  the  south  side  of  the  house,  stretch  away  the 
meadows.  On  the  other  side  are  the  apple  orchards, 
while  in  front  is  the  country  road,  which  on  either  side 
for  a  long  way  is  lined  with  tall  trees  which  meet  together 
over  it,  forming  a  beautiful  archway,  while  along  the 
roadside  bloom  the  wild  flowers  in  their  seasons.  I  can- 
not decide  at  what  time  of  the  year  I  best  like  to  make 
a  pilgrimage  to  the  picturesque  old  house.  I  love  to  go 
there  on  a  spring  morning  when  everything  about  it  is 
so  fresh  and  young,  when  the  robins  are  singing  so 
cheerily  in  the  beautiful  apple  orchards,  which  are  in 
their  full  glory  with  their  thousands  of  delightfully  fra- 
grant blossoms,  when  the  dandelions  bloom  so  gaily,  and 
when  everything  except  the  house  seems  young  and  happy. 
It  is  on  a  morning  in  this  season  that  I  like  to  imagine 
that  once  this  old  house  too  may  have  been  young  and 
that  there  may  have  lived  in  it  happy,  contented  peo- 
ple. One  of  those  rare  June  days  that  Lowell  tells  us 
of,  when 

•*  Heaven  tries  the  earth,  if  it  be  in  tune, 
And  over  it  softly  her  warm  ear  lays," 

is  another  time  when  I  like  to  visit  the  place.  The 
meadows  on  the  south  side  of  the  house  are  filled  with 
the  sweetlj^-scented  clovers,  the  bright-eyed  daisies,  and  the 
golden  butter-cups;  the  roses  in  the  front  door-yard  and 


338  RHETORIC  IN  PRACTICE 

the  honey-suckle  twining  so  lovingly  about  the  old  porch 
make  the  old  gray  house  look  less  dreary  than  usual.  It 
Is  at  this  time,  after  the  long,  hot  walk  up  the  country 
road,  that  I  like  to  stroll  out  Into  the  orchard  and  there 
sit  on  the  old  seat  In  one  of  the  apple  trees  In  full  sight 
of  the  house  and  dream  of  the  many  scenes  It  may  have 
witnessed.  At  this  season,  when  everything  about  Is  so 
full  of  beauty,  it  seems  as  if  the  house,  if  it  could,  would 
unfold  some  pleasant,  happy  secrets  it  knew  of  and  would 
tell  some  pretty  little  romances  Its  old  walls  had  seen  In 
the  days  of  its  youth.  I  think  my  visits  at  this  season  of 
the  year  are  longer  than  at  other  times,  for  everything 
about  the  house  is  so  beautiful  that,  under  the  influence 
of  its  surroundings.  It  seems  to  lose  some  of  Its  dismal- 
ness.  How  different  It  all  is  on  a  cold,  windy  autumn 
day.  Then  the  surroundings  seem  to  be  more  in  harmony 
with  the  old  house,  but  not  completely  so ;  for  the  wind  in 
its  play  blows  the  merry  red  leaves  about  it,  while  It 
seems  to  look  down  frowning  on  their  play.  This  is  no 
time  to  dream  In  the  orchard.  To  keep  warm  one 
must  keep  moving,  and  Is  led  rather  to  prowl  about 
the  house,  peeking  In  at  the  windows  and  looking  In 
vain  for  the  cheerful  blaze  that  will  probably  never 
again  be  seen  on  the  hearth.  It  seems  so  dreary  and 
forlorn,  as  the  wind  blows  the  blinds  back  and  forth 
and  howls  around  the  aged  house,  that  one  commences  to 
think  of  the  dreariness  and  sadness  It  may  have  seen,  and 
longs  to  return  to  his  home.  It  seems  to  me  that  the 
time  when,  more  than  at  all  others,  the  house  and  its  sur- 
roundings are  in  harmony,  is  on  a  cold,  gray,  winter's 
afternoon,  when  the  newly  fallen  snow  covers  everything. 
The  old  year  and  the  white,  silent  snow  seem  to  be  in 
accordance  with  the  house,  so  old  and  silent.     The  red 


THE  PARAGRAPH  339 

sun  sets  in  the  west  and  Is  reflected  in  the  broken  panes 
of  the  windows.  The  bright  light  seems  for  a  moment 
to  impart  some  life  to  the  old  deserted  house,  but  after 
the  sun  goes  down  all  grows  dreary  and  silent  again ;  even 
the  hoarse,  noisy  crows  are  silent,  and,  if  we  remain  still 
longer,  the  moon  comes  out  and  shines  on  it  and  gives 
to  all  a  ghostly  appearance.  Playful  little  breezes  blow 
clouds  of  the  soft  snow  into  fantastical  shapes,  and  from 
time  to  time  the  winds,  groaning  and  moaning,  blow 
about  the  house.  The  night  grows  colder,  and  we  decide 
to  return  to  our  home,  leaving  the  deserted  house  in  its 
solitude.  But  all  the  way  home,  in  spite  of  the  merry 
sleigh-bells  and  the  prospect  of  a  blazing  fire  before  us, 
we  cannot  help  thinking  of  the  dreary  old  house  standing 
alone  in  the  moonlight.  Of  course  we  can  never  know 
all  the  history  of  the  old  deserted  farmhouse,  but  it 
seems  to  me  that,  if  it  could  talk  and  would  tell  us  its 
story,  it  would  be  something  like  the  story  of  the  year. 
I  like  to  think  that  in  its  early  days  it  was  filled  with 
young  people,  happy  and  contented  in  the  spring  of  their 
lives;  that  in  later  years  it  held  these  same  people  within 
its  walls,  but  that  they  had  developed  into  beautiful  ma- 
turer  persons,  even  as  the  spring-time  of  the  year  changes 
into  the  summer.  In  still  later  years  the  young  people 
may  have  left  their  happy  homes  to  go  to  other  homes  of 
their  own,  and  the  two  aged  parents  have  been  left  alone 
in  the  old  home.  The  summer  of  the  house  had  gone  and 
its  fall-time  had  come,  just  as  the  summer-time  of  the  year 
goes  and  the  fall-time  fills  its  place.  Finally  these 
two  aged  ones  also  may  have  departed  and  left  the  old 
house  to  desolation  and  dreariness,  to  the  winter-time  of 
its  life.  And  so  let  us  leave  it  as  we  saw  it  on  that  win- 
ter's night,  standing  alone  in  its  desertedness. 


340  RHETORIC  IN  PRACTICE 

EXERCISE  210 

Cooperative  planning  is  exceedingly  valuable 
practice.  Let  the  entire  class,  working  together, 
plan  out  a  composition  on  some  topic  selected  by 
the  instructor.  Invent  a  title  for  each  paragraph, 
these  titles  to  be  recorded  on  the  blackboard.  This 
task,  perhaps  as  profitable  as  any  suggested  thus 
far,  may  well  be  repeated  many  times. 


EXERCISE  211 

Invent  initial  sentences  for  the  paragraphs  of  a 
composition  planned  out  according  to  Exercise  210. 


EXERCISE  212 

Let  each  member  of  the  class  expand  into  a 
paragraph  a  topical  sentence  furnished  by  his 
neighbor. 

EXERCISE  213 

Examine  the  compositions  you  have  written  dur- 
ing the  past  term,  for  the  purpose  of  seeing  where, 
were  you  rewriting,  you  would  wish  to  improve  the 
paragraph  structure. 


PART  IV 

VERSIFICATION 


CHAPTER  XXIV 
VERSIFICATION 

Place  before  you  a  volume  of  poetry  and  a 
volume  of  prose,  then  consider  carefully,  as  you 
turn  the  leaves,  wherein  the  two  forms  of  expres- 
sion differ. 

First  the  eye  notes  at  once  that  while  in  prose 
the  lines  run  from  margin  to  margin,  the  length 
being  determined  only  by  the  width  of  the  page, 
in  poetry  the  lines  are  shorter  and  frequently  vary 
in  length — not  by  accident,  but  according  to  a 
definite  plan,  evidently.  Moreover  the  lines  of 
poetry  are  In  groups,  as  a  rule,  corresponding  in 
a  way  to  the  paragraph  groups  found  in  prose,  yet 
far  more  nearly  uniform  as  regards  size. 

Then  the  ear  quickly  discovers.  If  passages  are 
read  aloud,  that  In  most  poetry  there  is  rhyme, — 
not  accidental,  but  employed  according  to  a  defi- 
nite plan,  usually  the  same  plan  being  adhered  to 
in  all  the  line-groups  making  up  a  complete  poem. 
More  than  this,  the  ear  detects  a  kind  of  swing  or 
rhythmical  movement.  Evidently  the  poet  has  so 
chosen  and  arranged  his  words  that  the  voice,  nat- 
urally  emphasizing    some    syllables    and    passing 

343 


344  VERSIFICATION 

lightly  over  others,  produces  a  sort  of  tune  which 
pleases  the  ear.  It  suggests  the  tramp-tr^mp  of 
marching  soldiers,  or  better  still,  the  lighter  tread 
of  the  dance.  Finally,  the  sensitive  ear  detects  not 
only  rhyme  and  rhythm,  but  harmony  of  sound; 
for  vowels  and  consonants  may  be  combined  har- 
moniously much  as  if  they  were  musical  notes  or 
shades  of  color.  They  are  so  combined  in  good 
prose,  it  is  true,  yet  not  to  the  degree  found  in  good 
poetry. 

Thus  much  the  eye  and  the  ear  discover  quite 
easily;  but  if  one  wishes  to  fully  appreciate  the  art 
of  poetry  and  be  able  to  talk  about  it  understand- 
ingly,  he  must  make  a  closer  survey  and  learn  to 
use  a  few  technical  terms. 

A  line  of  poetry  is  called,  technically,  a  verse. 
There  are  as  many  verses  in  any  poem  as  there  are 
lines.  We  speak  of  a  line  of  prose  as  containing 
so  many  words,  the  number  being  of  little  conse- 
quence; in  poetry  syllables  are  considered  rather 
than  words,  and  importance  is  attached  to  the 
number  receiving  a  stress  or  accent.  A  line  is 
named  according  to  the  number  of  stressed  sylla- 
bles it  contains.*  It  is  called  monometer,  dimeter, 
trimeter,  tetrameter,  pentameter,  hexameter,  hep- 
tameter,  according  as  it  contains  one,  two,  three, 
four,  ^ve,  six,  or  seven  accented  syllables.  Here 
are  examples. 

*  This  statement  may  be  modified  by  those  who  recognize  a  metrical  foot 
containing  two  stresses. 


VERSIFICATION  345 

Monometer:  Away! 
Dimeter :  This  song  of  mine 
Trimeter:  Heroic  womanhood 
Tetrameter:  Lilies  whiter  than  the  snow 
Pentameter:  The  poet  in  a  golden  clime  was  born 
Hexameter:  This  is  the  forest  primeval, the  murmuring 
pines  and  the  hemlocks 

Heptameter:  There's  not  a  joy  the  world  can  give  like 
that  it  takes  away 

We  note  in  passing  that  not  all  stressed  syllables 
receive  the  same  degree  of  voice  emphasis.  In  the 
tetrameter  line,  for  example,  than  receives  a  lighter 
accent  than  that  bestowed  upon  snow.  In  the  sec- 
ond place  we  note  that  no  syllable  Is  accented  which 
would  not  naturally  be  stressed  in  prose,  though 
to  bring  out  the  swing,  the  cadence,  the  voice  at 
times  varies  slightly  the  natural  degree  of  em- 
phasis. 

To  describe  a  line  with  precision,  more  must  be 
known  than  merely  the  number  of  stresses  it  con- 
tains; the  unaccented  syllables  must  be  considered. 
For  convenience,  the  line  Is  thought  of  as  made  up 
of  syllable  groups  called  feet,  and  these  too  have 
names.  A  foot  of  two  syllables  the  first  of  which 
receives  the  accent  Is  called  a  trochee.  A  foot  of 
two  syllables  the  second  of  which  receives  the 
accent  Is  called  an  Iambus.  A  foot  of  three  syl- 
lables the  first  of  which  receives  the  accent  Is  called 
a  dactyl.  A  foot  of  three  syllables  the  third  of 
which  receives  the  accent  is  called  an  anapaest. 
Here  are  examples. 


346  VERSIFICATION 

Trochee :  silver  Dactyl :  glittering 

Iambus :  beware  Anapaest :  to  the  brave 

The  adjectives  derived  from  these  nouns  are  tro- 
chaic, iambic,  dactylic,  anapaestic.  Hence  we 
may  speak  of  trochaic,  iambic,  dactylic,  or  ana- 
paestic lines,  meaning  that  they  are  made  up  of 
trochees,  iambi,  dactyls,  or  anapaests.  And  by 
combining  these  adjecttves  with  the  words  monom- 
eter,  dimeter,  etc.,  we  have  such  terms  as  trochaic 
dimeter,  iambic  pentameter,  etc.  Here  are  a  few 
examples. 

Iambic  monometer:  Be  gone! 

Iambic  dimeter:  The  day  |  is  done 

Iambic  trimeter :  Hero  |  ic  wom  |  anhood 

Iambic  tetrameter:  It  hailed  |  the  ships  |  and  cried  | 
"  Sail  on  " 

Iambic  pentameter :  The  qual  |  ity  |  of  mer  |  cy  is  |  not 
strain'd 

Iambic  hexameter:  And  6ft  |  en  knockt  |  his  breast,  ]  as 
one  I  that  did  |  repent 

Trochaic  hexameter :  Dainty  |  little  |  maiden,  |  whither  | 
would  you  I  wander? 

Anapaestic  tetrameter:  With  the  fife  |  and  the  horn  | 
and  the  war-  |  beating  gong 

Dactylic   dimeter:    Cannon   to  |  right   of   them 

Thus  we  have  convenient  names  for  twenty-eight 
different  kinds  of  lines.  Comparatively  few  of 
these,  however,  are  common  in  English  poetry. 

But  variety  does  not  stop  here.  A  succession  of 
lines  containing  none  but  iambic  feet,  for  example, 


VERSIFICATION  347 

would  be  as  monotonously  unmusical  as  the  sounds 
which  come  from  the  builder's  hammer.  Occa- 
sionally the  regularity  must  be  broken.  To  avoid 
monotony,  or  to  gain  prominence  for  some  particu- 
lar word  or  syllable  needing  emphasis,  a  trochee  or 
an  anapaest  may  be  substituted  for  an  iambus. 
Loosely  speaking,  all  four  kinds  of  feet  are  inter- 
changeable. Moreover,  not  uncommonly  an  extra 
unaccented  syllable  is  found  at  the  end  of  a  line, 
and  occasionally  just  before  a  pronounced  pause 
within  the  line.  Or  a  final  unaccented  syllable  may 
be  missing.  The  line  with  the  extra  syllable  at  the 
end  is  called  feminine;  the  line  in  which  the  final 
syllable  is  missing  is  called  truncated.  Notice  the 
following. 

1.  Run  to  I  your  hou  |  ses,   fall  |  upon  |  your  knees 

2.  It     is  I  the     bright  |  day     that  |  brings      forth  |  the 
ad  I  der 

3.  So  strange  |  ly  you  daz  |  zle  my  eye 

4.  Lilies  I  whiter  |  than  the  |  snow 

5.  Know  ye  the  |  land  where  the  |  cypress  and  |  myrtle 

6.  Hated  |  by  one  |  he  loves;  |  brav'd  by  |  his  broth  |  er 

In  the  first  foot  of  the  first  line  a  trochee  is  substi- 
tuted for  an  iambus.  In  the  second  example  we 
note  the  added  syllable  at  the  end,  making  the  line 
feminine.  The  fourth  line  Is  truncated.  In  the 
third,  an  iambus  takes  the  place  of  an  anapaest;  in 
the  fifth,  a  trochee  Is  substituted  for  a  dactyl.  The 
last  line  contains  three  variations,  two  trochees  in 
place  of  iambi,  and  a  feminine  ending. 


348  VERSIFICATION 

Examples  might  easily  be  multiplied  with  a  view 
to  showing  still  other  devices  by  means  of  which 
the  poet,  though  bound  by  the  laws  of  verse  to 
adhere  to  a  definite  scheme,  manages  to  keep  the 
scheme  from  being  too  boldly  apparent;  yet  no 
matter  what  changes  are  introduced,  the  cadence, 
the  rhythmic  swing  which  charms  the  ear,  is  never 
lost. 

By  far  the  most  common  line  In  English  poetry 
is  the  iambic  pentameter.  Unrhymed  iambic  pen- 
tameter is  called  blank  verse.  It  Is  the  noblest  of 
verse  forms,  most  dignified,  appropriate  for  lofty 
themes.  It  is  king  of  all  English  meters.  We 
find  it  in  Shakespeare's  plays,  in  Milton's  Paradise 
Lost,  and  in  Tennyson's  Idylls  of  the  King.  It  is 
not  arranged  in  line-groups  of  equal  size,  but  is 
paragraphed  like  prose.  Some  one  has  said  that 
blank  verse  Is  the  easiest  of  all  forms  of  poetry  to 
write,  but  the  most  difficult  to  write  well.  It  is 
easiest  because  It  does  not  call  for  rhyming,  nor  for 
any  variation  In  the  length  of  the  line;  it  Is  most 
difficult  because  one  who  employs  it  must  man- 
age to  make  his  lines  attractively  musical  and 
impressive  without  rhyming  them,  without  vary- 
ing their  length  and  combining  them  In  stanza 
form. 

Here  Is  an  example  of  blank  verse,  with  the 
meter  marked  In  the  usual  way;  that  Is,  the  stressed 
syllables  are  indicated  by  means  of  the  accent  sign 
('),  and  the  feet  are  separated  by  means  of  little 
lines  (I). 


VERSIFICATION  349 

1.  The  qual  |  ity  |  of  mer  |  cy  is  |  not  strain'd ; 

2.  It    drop  I  peth    as  |  the    gen  |  tie    rain  |  from    heav'n 

3.  Upon  I  the  place  |  beneath :  |  it  is  |  twice  blest ; 

4.  It  bless  j  eth  him  |  that  gives  |  and  him  |  that  takes: 

5.  'Tis  might  |  iest  in  |  the  might  |  iest:  it  |  becomes 

6.  The  thron  |  ed  mon  |  arch  bet  |  ter  than  |  his  crown ; 

7.  His     seep  I  ter     shows  |  the     force  |  of     tem  |  poral 
pow  I  er, 

8.  The  at  |  tribute  |  to  awe  |  and  maj  |  esty, 

9.  Wherein  |  doth  sit  |  the  dread  |  and  fear  |  of  kings 

10.  But  mer  |  cy  is  |  above  |  this  seep  |  ter'd  sway; 

11.  It  is  I  enthron  |  ed  in  |  the  hearts  |  of  kings, 

12.  It  is  I  an  at  I  tribute  |  to  God  |  himself; 

I  J.  And    earth  |  ly  power  |  doth    then  |  show    lik  |  est 
God's, 

14.  When  mer  I  cy  sea  |  sons  jus  i  tice. 


Notice  that  each  line  save  the  last,  which  Is  in- 
complete, contains  five  accents,  not  all  of  them 
equally  Important,  It  Is  true,  yet  all  falling  upon 
syllables  which  might  receive  some  degree  of  em- 
phasis In  prose;  and  that  most  of  the  feet  are 
iambic,  so  that  nearly  every  line  contains  ten  syl- 
lables. There  are  a  few  exceptions.  In  the  sec- 
ond line,  heaven  must  be  pronounced  as  If  It  were 
one  syllable;  the  second  syllable  Is  but  barely 
sounded  even  In  prose.  In  the  fifth  line,  mightiest 
Is  treated  as  If  It  were  a  word  of  two  syllables;  we 
seldom  make  three  of  It,  even  In  prose.  Such  slur- 
ring, or  running  together  of  unimportant  syllables. 
Is  common  In  all  poetry.  In  the  sixth  line,  we  note 
the  opposite  device,  a  word  pronounced  as  one  syl- 


350  VERSIFICATION 

lable  made  into  two.  Final  -ed  is  frequently  so 
treated.  In  the  seventh  line  the  fifth  foot  is  an 
anapaest,  unless  the  reader  prefers  to  run  together 
two  syllables;  and  the  line  has  a  feminine  ending. 
Or  power  may  be  treated  as  if  it  were  one  syllable, 
as  doubtless  it  should  be  treated  in  the  thirteenth 
line.  Such  changes  as  those  pointed  out  are  so 
common  that  the  reader  hardly  notices  them;  the 
Iambic  swing  carries  him  along  from  line  to  line 
irresistibly.  It  is  only  when  we  stop  to  analyze, 
that  they  become  apparent. 

Next  in  importance  to  blank  verse  is  the  heroic 
couplet — iambic  pentameter  lines  rhymed  in  pairs. 
Like  blank  verse,  it  is  not,  as  a  rule,  arranged  in 
stanzas,  but  is  paragraphed  like  prose.  It  is  used 
in  long  narrative  poems.  Chaucer  and  Dryden 
and  Pope  employ  it  freely.  At  its  best  it  is  very 
good;  when  poorly  managed,  it  becomes  cheap  and 
sing-songy.  Some  one  has  called  it  the  rocking- 
horse  measure,  because  the  first  line  of  each  coup- 
let seems  to  go  up — up — up,  the  second  down — 
down — down ;  and  between  couplets  there  is  apt  to 
be  quite  a  pause,  as  if  the  entire  poem  were  divided 
into  two-line  links  partially  independent  of  each 
other.  Here  is  an  example  taken  from  Pope's 
translation  of  the  Iliad. 

Thus  hav  |  ing  spoke  |  th'  fllus  |  trious  chief  |  of  Troy 
Stretched  his  |  fond  arms  |  to  clasp  |  the  love  |  ly  boy. 
The  babe  |  clung  cry  |  ing  to  |  his  nurse  |  's  breast, 
Scar'd  at  I  the  daz  I  zling  helm  I  and  nod  I  ding  crest. 


VERSIFICATION  35 1 

With  se  I  cret  pleas  |ure  each  |  fond  par  |  ent  smil'd, 
And  Hec  |  tor  hast  |  ed  to  |  relieve  |  his  child ; 
The  glit  I  tering  ter  |  rors  from  |  his  brow  |  unbound, 
And  placed  I  the  beam  |  ing  hel  |  met  on  |  the  ground, 
Then  kiss'd  |the  child,  |  and,  lift  |  ing  high  |  in  air, 
Thus  to  I  the  gods  |  preferr'd  |  a  f a  |  ther's  prayer : 

Two  lines  rhyming  together,  as  in  the  measure 
just  described,  are  called  a  couplet,  regardless  of 
their  length  or  the  kind  of  foot  employed.  Three 
lines  rhyming  together  are  called  a  triplet.  Trip- 
lets are  usually  printed  in  stanza  form.  Here  are 
the  opening  lines  of  one  of  Tennyson's  songs. 

Oh !  what  I  is  so  swe6t  |  as  a  morn  |  ing  in  spring, 

When  the  gale  |  is  all  fresh  |  ness,  and  larks  |  on  the  wing. 

In  clear  |  liquid  car  |  ols  their  grat  |  itude  sing? 

I  rove  I  o'er  the  hill  |  as  it  spark  |  les  with  dew, 

And  the  red  |  flush  of  Phoe  |  bus  with  ec  |  stasy  view, 

As  he  breaks  |  thro'  the  east  |  o'er  thy  crags,  |  Benvenu ! 

Far  more  common  than  the  triple  rhyme  is  the 
four  line  stanza  or  quatrain.  The  rhymes  may  be 
in  various  combinations.  In  the  first  of  the  fol- 
lowing quatrains,  it  will  be  noted  that  the  first  line 
rhymes  with  the  last,  the  second  with  the  third; 
in  the  second,  the  first  line  rhymes  with  the  third, 
the  second  with  the  fourth.  The  third  quatrain 
is  made  up  of  two  couplets ;  and  in  the  last  quatrain 
there  is  but  a  single  rhyme,  that  between  the  sec- 
ond and  fourth  lines. 


352  VERSIFICATION 

I  held  I  It  truth  |  with  him  |  who  sings 
j  To  one  |  clear  harp  |  in  di  |  vers  tones, 
(  That  men  |  may  rise  |  on  step  |  ping-stones 
Of  their  |  dead  selves  |  to  high  |  er  things. 

r  Once  more  |  the  gate  |  behind  |  me  falls; 
f  -l        Once  more  |  before  |  my  face 
j    L  I  see  I  the  moul  |  der'd  Ab  |  bey-walls 
I  That  stand  |  within  |  the  chace. 

You  must  wake  |  and  call  |  me  ear  |  ly,  call  |  me  ear  |  ly, 

moth  I  er  dear: 
To-mor  |  row  'ill  be  |  the  hap  |  piest  time  |  of  all  |  the 

glad  I  New-year; 

Of  all  I  the  glad  |  New-year,  |  mother,  |  the  mad  |  dest, 

mer  |  riest  day ; 
For  I  'm  I  to  be  Queen  |  o'  the  May,  |  mother,  |  I  'm  to  | 

be  Queen  |  o'  the  May. 

It  is  I  an  an  I  cient  Mar  |  iner 
r     And  he  stop  |  peth  one  |  of  three, 
■j  By  thy  long  |  gray  beard  |  and  glit  |  tering  eye 
I      Now  where  |  fore  stop'st  |  thou  me? 

By  varying  not  only  the  rhyme  but  the  length  of 
line,  the  quatrain  may  be  made  to  assume  a  great 
many  forms,  as  any  hymnal  will  show,  for  the 
quatrain  is  a  favorite  with  writers  of  hymns. 

To  describe  in  detail  all  possible  stanza  forms 
would  be  unprofitable.  We  shall  do  well  If  at 
present  we  keep  In  mind  the  meaning  of  the  terms 
blank  verse,  heroic  couplets,  triple  rhyme,  and 
quatrain,  and  learn  a  convenient  way  of  describing 
any  possible  verse  combination.     In  describing  a 


VERSIFICATION  353 

stanza,  first  state  the  number  of  lines  It  contains; 
second,  describe  the  hnes;  third,  give  the  rhyming 
scheme.  A  convenient  way  of  indicating  rhyme 
is  by  means  of  small  letters.  The  rhyming  scheme 
of  the  first  quatrain  above  is  thus  indicated  as  abba; 
that  is,  the  first  and  fourth  lines  rhyme,  and  the 
second  and  third.  In  the  second,  the  scheme  is 
abab,  m  the  third  aabb,  and  In  the  fourth  abcb. 
The  lines  rhyming,  it  will  be  noticed,  are  repre- 
sented by  the  same  letter.  A  complete  description 
of  the  first  quatrain  would  be  as  follows:  It  is 
made  up  of  four  iambic  tetrameter  lines,  the  rhym- 
ing scheme  being  abba.  The  second  would  be 
described  thus :  It  is  made  up  of  four  lines,  the  first 
and  third  iambic  tetrameter,  the  second  and  fourth 
iambic  trimeters,  the  rhyming  scheme  being  abab. 
Closely  related  to  rhyme  is  the  device  called  allit- 
eration, or  the  repetition  of  similar  sounds.  No- 
tice the  following  lines. 

1.  E/alne  the  fair,  E/alne  the  /ovab/e, 
E/aine  the  lily  maid  of  Asto/at 

2.  With  prudes  for  /)roctors,  dowagers  for  ^eans, 
And  sweet  ^irl-^raduates  in  their  golden  hair 

In  the  first  quotation,  the  poet  plays  a  little  tune 
with  the  letter  /.  In  the  second,  p  and  d  form 
alliterative  pairs,  and  g  is  three  times  repeated. 
A  less  noble  example  is  found  in  the  familiar  Peter 
Piper  picked  a  peck  of  pickled  peppers.  It  is 
hardly  necessary  to  mention  the  cheap  alliterations 
found   in  newspaper  headings   and  In   advertise- 


354  VERSIFICATION 

ments.  Skilfully  employed,  alliteration  adds  ma- 
terially to  the  charm  of  verse.  In  Anglo-Saxon 
poetry,  it  takes  the  place  of  rhyme  altogether. 

Associated  in  a  way  with  alliteration  is  onoma- 
topoeia, a  device  much  simpler  than  its  name,  by 
means  of  which  the  sounds  of  words  are  made  to 
suggest  what  the  words  describe.  An  earlier  chap- 
ter calls  attention  to  certain  purely  imitative  words 
— whiz,  bang,  gurgle,  etc.  Onomatopoeia  Is  not 
always  directly  imitative;  usually,  as  employed  by 
the  skilled  writer  of  poetry  or  prose,  it  is  merely 
suggestive.  In  Tennyson's  The  Northern  Farmer, 
a  father  is  urging  his  son  to  marry  for  money,  or 
property.     He  introduces  the  subject  in  this  way: 

Dosn't  thou  'ear  my  'ersc's  [horse's]  legs,  as  they  canters 

awaay  ? 
Proputty,   proputty,   proputty — that's  what   I   'ears   'em 
saay. 

The  proputty,  proputty,  proputty  suggests  un- 
mistakably the  sound  of  the  horse's  hoofs.  Though 
one  has  never  studied  Latin,  he  can  hardly  fail  to 
catch  the  hoof-beat  in  the  following  line. 

Quad   ru   pe  |  dante   pu  |  trem   soni  |  tu   quatit  |  ungula  | 
campum. 

In  Browning's  Up  at  a  Villa  occurs  the  line 

Bang-whang,  whang  goes  the  drum,  tootle-te-tootle  the  fife. 

And  here  we  have  a  more  delicate  degree  of  ono- 
matopoeia : 


VERSIFICATION  355 

I  heard  the  ripple  washing  in  the  reeds 
And  the  wild  water  lapping  on  the  crag. 

In  these  illustrations,  the  device  Is  easily  de- 
tected, for  In  each  case  there  Is  direct  Imitation,  or 
at  least  the  sound  echoes  the  sense.  Sometimes, 
however,  the  reader  merely  feels  that  the  words 
are  appropriate,  feels  that  the  sounds  are  not  only 
In  harmony  with  each  other,  but  in  harmony  with 
the  sense. 

It  may  well  be  asked,  why  take  the  trouble  to 
study  versification  and  learn  such  technical  terms 
as  anapastic  dimeter,  truncated,  etc.  Cannot 
poetry  be  enjoyed  without  study?  Of  course  it 
can,  in  large  measure.  Versification,  after  all,  con- 
cerns merely  the  outward  form  of  poetry;  or  we 
may  think  of  it  as  but  the  musical  accompaniment 
to  the  poet's  thought  and  fancy  and  feeling. 
Yet  this  musical  accompaniment  is  essential 
to  poetry,  and  therefore  deserves  attention. 
We  may  derive  pleasure  from  witnessing  a 
contest  of  skill  and  strength,  a  football  game  for 
example,  without  being  familiar  with  the  rules  gov- 
erning it,  or  able  to  distinguish  between  plays 
which  are  commonplace  and  others  truly  wonder- 
ful; but  how  much  greater  and  more  intelligent 
the  pleasure  which  comes  to  one  who  knows  the 
game  thoroughly,  sees  the  splendid  pluck  and  gen- 
eralship which  sends  the  ball  here  and  there.  In 
the  same  way  a  painting  may  be  mildly  appreciated 
by  one  who  knows  little  about  color  and  composi- 


356  VERSIFICATION 

tion;  but  there  Is  a  better,  more  just  appreciation 
and  pleasure  which  comes  through  patient  study 
only.  Versification  Is  a  kind  of  contest,  as  one 
soon  discovers  if  he  tries  to  write  poetry.  Rhythm 
and  rhyme  do  not  always  come  when  bidden ;  or  If 
they  come,  away  may  fly  the  thought  to  be  ex- 
pressed. Versification,  like  painting.  Is  an  art,  and 
all  art  Is  difficult.  We  all  enjoy  seeing  some  one 
win  against  great  odds,  overcoming  that  which 
seems  nearly  Impossible.  But  to  appreciate  any 
great  effort,  we  must  in  some  degree  share  it.  A 
study  of  versification  trains  the  ear.  It  helps  one 
to  see  how  really  wonderful  is  the  poet's  art. 

For  convenience  of  reference,  the  technical  terms 
employed  In  this  chapter,  and  a  few  related  terms, 
are  here  brought  together. 

Accent :  The  emphasis  which  the  voice  gives  a  syllable 
to  show  that  it  is  of  more  importance  than  neighboring 
syllables. 

Rhythm:  The  swing  or  movement  imparted  by  the 
occurrence  of  stressed  or  accented  syllables  at  regular  in- 
tervals. 

Meter :  The  rhythmical  arrangement  of  words. 

Verse :  A  line  of  poetry. 

Foot:  A  group  of  syllables  one  of  which  is  always  ac- 
cented ;  a  unit  of  rhythm. 

Monometer :  A  line  containing  one  accented  syllable. 

Dimeter:  A  line  containing  two  accented  syllables. 

Trimeter :  A  line  containing  three  accented  syllables. 

Tetrameter :  A  line  containing  four  accented  syllables. 

Pentameter :  A  line  containing  five  accented  syllables. 


VERSIFICATION  357 

Hexameter :  A  line  containing  six  accented  syllables. 

Heptameter:  A  line  containing  seven  accented  sylla- 
bles. 

Iambus :  A  foot  of  two  syllables  the  second  of  which 
receives  the  accent. 

Trochee:  A  foot  of  two  syllables  the  first  of  which 
receives  the  accent. 

Anapaest;  A  foot  of  three  syllables  the  last  of  which 
receives  the  accent. 

Dactyl :  A  foot  of  three  syllables  the  first  of  which  re- 
ceives the  accent. 

Rhyme :  Similarity  of  sound,  usually  found  at  the  end 
of  lines. 

Stanza:  A  group  of  metrically  related  lines;  a  minor 
division  of  a  poem. 

Blank  Verse:  Unrhymed  poetry,  normally  iambic 
pentameter. 

Couplet :  Two  consecutive  lines,  usually  rhyming. 

Heroic  Couplets:  Iambic  pentameter  lines  rhymed  in 
pairs. 

Triplet:  Three  consecutive  lines,  usually  rhyming. 

Quatrain :  A  four  line  stanza. 

Spenserian  Stanza:  Eight  iambic  pentameter  lines 
followed  by  an  iambic  hexameter  (Alexandrine)  line,  the 
rhyming  scheme  being  ahabbchcc. 

Italian  Sonnet :  A  poem  of  fourteen  iambic  pentameter 
lines,  an  eight  line  group  followed  by  a  six  line  group,  the 
rhyming  scheme  of  the  first  being  ahha  abba,  of  the  second 
cdcdcd  or  cdecde. 

Feminine  Line:  One  containing  an  extra  unaccented 
syllable  at  the  end. 

Truncated  Line :  One  in  which  a  final  unaccented  syl- 
lable is  missing. 


358  VERSIFICATION 

Alliteration:  The  repetition  of  similar  sounds,  usually 
at  the  beginning  of  a  syllable. 

Onomatopoeia:  A  correspondence  between  sense  and 
sound  through  imitation  or  suggestion. 

Scanning :  Separating  a  verse  into  its  metrical  feet,  or 
reading  a  verse  so  as  to  show  the  succession  of  feet. 


EXERCISE  214 

Mark  the  scansion  of  the  following;  that  is, 
separate  the  feet  by  means  of  dividing  lines  and 
place  the  accent  mark  over  the  stressed  syllables. 
Give  each  line  its  proper  name.     Name  each  foot. 

1.  I  heard  the  trailing  garments  of  the  night. 

2.  Tell  me  not  in  mournful  numbers 

3.  The  night  is  come,  but  not  too  soon. 

4.  Upon  the  meadows  low 

5.  Excelsior! 

6.  Tears  upon  his  eyelids  glistened. 

7.  Solemnly,  mournfully 

8.  Now  had  the  season  returned,  when  the  nights  grow 
colder  and  longer. 

9.  Filled  the  river  full  of  fishes 

10.  In  the  silence  of  morning  the  sound  of  the  bird 

11.  Awake,  awake,  my  Lyre. 

12.  I  am  monarch  of  all  I  survey. 

13.  Oh  could  I  feel  as  I  have  felt, — or  be  what  I  have 
been. 

14.  I  should  have  known  what  fruit  would  spring  from 
such  a  seed. 

15.  With  the  dew  on  his  brow  and  the  rust  on  his  mail 


VERSIFICATION  359 

1 6.  'Tis  sweet  to  hear  the  watch-dog's  honest  bark. 

17.  Away! 

18.  As  it  fell  upon  a  day 


EXERCISE  215 

In  the  same  way  mark  the  scansion  of  the  fol- 
lowing lines.  Place  a  caret  (  A  )  wherever  a  foot 
seems  defective  because  lacking  an  unaccented  syl- 
lable, and  indicate  by  means  of  an  ^^^  where  you 
think  two  syllables  should  be  run  together.  In  de- 
scribing a  line  containing  more  than  one  kind  of 
foot,  remember  that  the  prevailing  foot — the  foot 
occurring  most  frequently — determines  the  name 
of  the  line. 

1.  Drink  to  me  only  with  thine  eyes. 

2.  Duncan  Gray  came  here  to  woo. 

3.  He  is  gone  on  the  mountain. 

4.  Milton!  thou  shouldst  be  living  at  this  hour. 

5.  Phcebus,  arise. 

6.  The  twentieth  year  is  well-nigh  past. 

7.  When  the  sheep  are  in  the  fauld,  and  the  kye  at 
hame 

8.  A  soothsayer  bids  you  beware  the  ides  of  March. 

9.  He  is  not  doubted.     A  word,  Lucilius. 

10.  That  touches  Caesar  nearer;  read  it,  Caesar. 

11.  I  sat  by  the  dreary  hearth  alone. 

12.  Come,  dear  children,  let  us  away. 

13.  Had  I  but  plenty  of  money,  money  enough  and  to 
spare 


36o  VERSIFICATION 


EXERCISE  216 

Mark  the  scansion  of  the  following.    Describe 
each  stanza. 

1.  The  ship  was  cheered,  the  harbour  cleared; 

Merrily  did  we  drop 
Below  the  kirk,  below  the  hill, 
Below  the  lighthouse  top. 

— Coleridge's  Ancient  Mariner 

2.  The  curfew  tolls  the  knell  of  parting  day, 

The  lowing  herd  winds  slowly  o'er  the  lea, 
The  plowman  homeward  plods  his  weary  way, 
And  leaves  the  world  to  darkness  and  to  me. 
— Gray's  Elegy  in  a  Country  Churchyard 

3.  The  stag  at  eve  had  drunk  his  fill, 
Where  danced  the  moon  on  Monan's  rill, 
And  deep  his  midnight  lair  had  made 

In  lone  Glenartney's  hazel  shade; 

But  when  the  sun  his  beacon  red 

Had  kindled  on  Benvoirlich's  head. 

The  deep-mouthed  bloodhounds'  heavy  bay 

Resounded  up  the  rocky  way, 

And  faint,  from  farther  distance  borne. 

Were  heard  the  clanging  hoof  and  horn. 

— Scott's  Lady  of  the  Lake 

4.  Pansies,  Lilies,  Kingcups,  Daisies, 
Let  them  live  upon  their  praises; 
Long  as  there's  a  sun  that  sets. 
Primroses  will  have  their  glory ; 
Long  as  there  are  Violets, 

They  will  have  a  place  in  story: 


VERSIFICATION  361 

There's  a  flower  that  shall  be  mine, 
'Tis  the  little  Celandine. 
— Wordzvorth's  To  the  Small  Celandine 

5.  Then  out  spake  brave  Horatius, 

The  Captain  of  the  Gate : 
"  To  every  man  upon  this  earth 

Death  cometh  soon  or  late. 
And  how  can  man  die  better 

Than  facing  fearful  odds, 
For  the  ashes  of  his  fathers. 

And  the  temples  of  his  gods  ?  " 

— Macaulay*s  Horatius 

6.  But,  Mousie,  thou  art  no  thy  lane. 
In  proving  foresight  may  be  vain: 
The  best  laid  schemes  o'  mice  an'  men 

Gang  aft  a-gley, 
An'  lea'e  us  nought  but  grief  an'  pain 
For  promis'd  joy. 

— Burns*s  To  a  Mouse 

7.  Merry  it  is  in  the  good  greenwood, 

When  the  mavis  and  merle  are  singing, 
When  the  deer  sweeps  by,  and  the  hounds  are  in  cry, 
And  the  hunter's  horn  is  ringing. 

— Scott* s  Alice  Brand j  in  Lady  of  the  Lake 

8.  Hail  to  the  Chief  who  in  triumph  advances ! 

Honored  and  blessed  be  the  ever-green  Pine! 
Long  may  the  tree,  in  his  banner  that  glances, 
Flourish,  the  shelter  and  grace  of  our  line ! 
Heaven  send  it  happy  dew, 
Earth  lend  it  sap  anew. 
Gaily  to  bourgeon  and  broadly  to  grow, 


362  VERSIFICATION 

While  every  Highland  glen 
Sends  our  shout  back  again, 
"  Roderigh  Vich  Alpine  dhu  ho !  leroe !  " 

— Scott's  Boat  Song,  in  Lady  of  the  Lake 

9.  The  world  is  too  much  with  us;  late  and  soon, 
Getting  and  spending,  we  lay  waste  our  powers : 
Little  we  see  in  Nature  that  is  ours ; 
We  have  given  our  hearts  away,  a  sordid  boon! 
The  sea  that  bares  her  bosom  to  the  moon ; 
The  winds  that  will  be  howling  at  all  hours, 
And  are  up-gathered  now  like  sleeping  flowers ; 
For  this,  for  everything,  we  are  out  of  tune ; 
It  moves  us  not.     Great  God!  I'd  rather  be 
A  Pagan  suckled  in  a  creed  outworn ; 
So  might  I,  standing  on  this  pleasant  lea. 
Have  glimpses  that  would  make  me  less  forlorn; 
Have  sight  of  Proteus  rising  from  the  sea; 
Or  hear  old  Triton  blow  his  wreathed  horn. 

— Wordsworth 


EXERCISE  217 

Here  are  lines  to  study.  Point  out  examples  of 
onomatopceia,  and  determine  where  it  is  employed 
most  successfully.  Point  out  lines  in  which  the 
poet  appears  to  be  making  melody  by  repetition  of 
some  letter — that  is,  point  out  examples  of  alliter- 
ation. Point  out  lines  in  which  melody  is  due  to 
the  skilful  arrangement  of  vowel  sounds.  Which 
lines  are  to  your  ear  especially  musical?  Which 
seem  commonplace? 


VERSIFICATION  363 

1.  Tramp,  tramp,  tramp,  the  boys  are  marching. 

2.  And  from  its  station  in  the  hall 
An  ancient  timepiece  says  to  all, — 

"  Forever — never ! 
Never — forever !  " 

3.  And  seeing  her  so  sweet  and  serviceable, 
Geraint  had  longing  in  him  evermore 
To  stoop  and  kiss  the  tender  little  thumb 
That  cross'd  the  trencher  as  she  laid  it  down. 

4.  Claspt  the  gray  walls  with  hairy-fibred  arms. 

5.  The  fair  breeze  blew,  the  white  foam  flew, 

The  furrow  followed  free: 
We  were  the  first  that  ever  burst 
Into  that  silent  sea, 

6.  O  marvelously  modest  maiden  you! 

7.  When  the  hounds  of  spring  are  on  winter's  traces, 

The  mother  of  months,  in  meadow  or  plain, 
Fills  the  shadows  and  windy  places 

With  lisp  of  leaves  and  ripples  of  rain ; 

And  the  brown  bright  nightingale  amorous 
Is  half  assuaged  for  Itylus, 
For  the  Thracian  ships  and  the  foreign  faces, 
The  tongueless  vigil,  and  all  the  pain. 
8  At  this  upon  the  sward 

She  tapt  her  tiny  silken  sandal'd  foot. 
9.  And  overhead 

The  broad  ambrosial  aisles  of  lofty  lime 
Made  noise  of  bees  and  breeze  from  end  to  end. 

10.  With  lengths  of  yellow  ringlet  like  a  girl. 

11.  Now,  while  they  spake,  I  saw  my  father's  face 
Grow  long  and  broad  like  a  rising  moon. 


364  VERSIFICATION 

Inflamed  with  wrath:  he  started  on  his  feet, 
Tore  the  king's  letter,  snow'd  it  down,  and  rent 
The  wonder  of  the  loom  thro'  warp  and  woof 
From  skirt  to  skirt ;  and  at  the  last  he  swore 
That  he  would  send  a  hundred  thousand  men, 
And  bring  her  in  a  whirlwind ;  then  he  chew'd 
The  thrice-turn'd  cud  of  wrath ;  and  cook  his  spleen, 
Communing  with  his  captains  of  the  war. 

12.  And,  when  they  list,  their  lean  and  flashy  songs 
Grate  on  their  scrannel  pipes  of  wretched  straw, 

13.  Let  lovely  lilacs  line  Lee's  lonely  lane. 

14.  The  fire  less  fiercely  flamed  from  his  head. 

15.  Here  comes  a  laggard  hanging  down  his  head. 
Who  seems  no  better  than  a  beaten  hound. 

16.  The  ice  was  here,  the  ice  was  there, 

The  ice  was  all  around: 
It  cracked  and  growled,  and  roared  and  howled. 
Like  noises  in  a  swound ! 

17.  I  stood  and  seem'd  to  hear 
As  in  a  poplar  grove  when  a  light  wind  makes 
A  lisping  of  the  innumerous  leaf  and  dies. 
Each  hissing  in  his  neighbor's  ear;  and  then 

A  strangled  titter,  out  of  which  there  brake 

On  all  sides,  clamoring  etiquette  to  death. 

Unmeasured  mirth;  while  now  the  two  old  kings 

Began  to  wag  their  baldness  up  and  down, 

The   fresh   young   captains    flash'd    their   glittering 

teeth. 
The  huge  bush-bearded  barons  heav'd  and  blew, 
And  slain  with  laughter  roU'd  the  gilded  squire. 


VERSIFICATION  365 

18.  The  splendor  falls  on  castle  walls 

And  snowy  summits  old  In  story; 
The  long  light  shakes  across  the  lakes 

And  the  wild  cataract  leaps  In  glory. 
Blow,  bugles,  blow,  set  the  wild  echoes  flying, 
Blow,  bugles,  answer  echoes,  dying,  dying,  dying. 

19.  He  found  an  ancient  dame  in  dim  brocade. 

20.  Then  the  good  King  gave  order  to  let  blow 
His  horns  for  hunting  on  the  morrow  morn. 

21.  And  by  and  by  the  people,  when  they  met 
In  twos  and  threes,  or  fuller  company. 
Began  to  scoff  and  jeer  and  babble  of  him. 

22.  The  great  organ  almost  burst  his  pipes. 
Groaning  for  power,  and  rolling  thro'  the  court 
A  long  melodious  thunder  to  the  sound 

Of  solemn  psalms  and  silver  litanies. 

23.  O  Swallow,  Swallow,  flying,  flying  South, 
Fly  to  her,  and  fall  upon  her  gilded  eaves. 
And  tell  her,  tell  her  what  I  tell  to  thee. 

24.  Her  fancy  dwelling  in  this  dusky  hall 

25.  Row,  vassals,  row,  for  the  pride  of  the  Highlands! 

Stretch  to  j^our  oars,  for  the  ever-green  Pine! 
O,  that  the  rose-bud  that  graces  yon  islands. 

Were  wreathed  in  a  garland  around  him  to  twine! 
O  that  some  seedling  gem. 
Worthy  such  noble  stem 
Honour'd  and  bless'd  in  their  shadow  might  grow! 
Loud  should  Clan-Alpine  then 
Ring  from  her  deepmost  glen, 
**  Roderigh,  Vich  Alpine  dhu,  ho  I  ieroe !  " 


APPENDIX 

CORRECTING   PROOF 

Sooner  or  later  nearly  every  one  has  occasion 
to  get  something  printed.  It  may  not  be  a  book, 
perhaps  nothing  more  than  a  pamphlet,  a  circu- 
lar, or  a  plain  advertisement;  yet  It  Is  seldom  pos- 
sible to  escape  the  printer  altogether.  When 
"  copy  "  has  been  "  set  up  "  and  an  ''  Impression  " 
taken,  the  printer  sends  to  the  writer  "  proof- 
sheets";  for  there  may  have  been  errors  In  the 
manuscript  given  to  the  compositor,  and  still  other 
errors  may  have  crept  in  during  typesetting. 
Then  comes  proof-reading. 

Every  one  should  know  how  to  correct  proof. 
But  to  do  this  easily  one  must  first  learn  to  use 
certain  symbols,  a  kind  of  sign-language  employed 
by  printers.  Usually  it  takes  two  marks  or  signs 
to  Indicate  a  desired  correction,  one  in  the  printed 
matter  to  point  out  where  the  change  is  to  be  made, 
and  one  in  the  broad  margin  always  found  In 
proof-sheets,  to  tell  the  printer  what  change  to 
make.  The  most  important  of  these  signs  are  the 
following. 


367 


^68  APPENDIX 

y\  Insert  at  this  point.  That  which  is  to  be  in- 
serted is  placed  in  the  margin.  If  a  letter, 
a  word,  or  a  punctuation-mark  is  wrong,  a 
line  is  drawn  through  it,  and  the  right  let- 
ter, word,  or  punctuation-mark  is  placed  in 
the  margin. 

\L)  Insert  or  substitute  a  period  at  the  point  indi- 
cated, 

^^     Insert  an  apostrophe, 
V^  v^  Insert  quotation-marks, 
^        Insert  a  hyphen. 
:4¥      Make  a  space  at  the  point  indicated. 
O        Join. 


Take  out.     A  line  is  drawn  through  whatever 
is  to  be  removed. 


^c. 


Change  from  capital  to  small  letter.  The 
small  letters  are  kept  in  the  compositor's 
lower  case. 

^^^'       Change  to  capital. 
^<^^a£.       Change  to  italics. 

^ur»n^.  Change  to  roman  type.  In  preparing  copy  for 
the  printer  the  writer  underlines  once  words 
to  be  put  in  italics,  twice  words  to  be  put 
in  small  capitals,  three  times  words  to  be 
put  in  large  capitals. 
Wrong  font.  That  is,  the  letter  through 
which  a  line  is  drawn  is  not  of  the  proper 
size  or  style. 


4Ar, 


CORRECTING  PROOF  369 

X        Defective  type. 
9        Letter  upside  down. 
^^       Transpose.     The    words    or    letters    which 

should     change     places     are     linked     by 

an     ( 


<5^        Begin  a  new  paragraph  here.    When  the  break 
occurs  in  a  line,  the  dividing  point  is  indi- 
cated by  an  | 
TVir  97*     No  paragraph  here, 

^,4^t[f.     Restore.     If  the  proof-reader  makes  a  change 
which  afterwards  he  finds  unnecessary,  he 
places  a  row  of  dots  underneath  his  blunder, 
and  writes  stet.  in  the  margin. 
Qk         Is  this  right?     These  two  symbols  are  used 
^f  principally  by  the  printer  to  call  the  writer's 

?  attention    to    something   wrong   which    he 

thinks  may  have  escaped  attention. 
The  main  thing  in  correcting  proof  is  to  make 
the  printer  understand  what  is  wanted.  It  is  bet- 
ter to  write  out  corrections  in  full,  if  by  so  doing 
the  desired  change  can  be  more  clearly  indicated. 
Where  several  corrections  occur  In  the  same  line, 
they  should  be  separated  by  an  oblique'  /  line. 
Just  how  this  is  done,  and  how  the  various  symbols 
are  employed,  will  be  seen  In  the  following  exercise. 


370  APPENDIX 


EXERCISE  218 


Explain  the  meaning  of  the  symbols  found  in 
this  specimen  proof-sheet. 

Ua^y  The  three  spinsters. 

--AC./   There  was  once  a  girl  who  was  lazy  and  would 

yzayru/  V:2^  ^P^'?^  and  her  mother  could  not  persuade  her 

', /  to  do  it^do  what  she  would.    At  last  the  mother 

became  angry  and  out  of  patience,  and  gave    ^ 
^.  c./  her  a  good  ^eating,  so  that  she  cried  out  loudly. 
^2^  cjj-/  p  At  that  moment  the  ^ueen  was  going  hj/,   fjs,  <^/qI<^<^I 
/     she  heard  the  crying  she  stopped  and,  goinginto  ^    '      ' 
the  house,  she  asked  the  mother  why  she  was 
O'      beating  her  dauglQer  so  that  everyone  outside 

in  the  street  could  hear  her  criesTt,  The  woman    n/ 
was  ashamed  to  tell  of  her  daughters  laziness,      ^^/ 
•/  ^/   ^^  ^^  "^^^A^  cannot  stop  her  from  spinning. 
«^  a/Sheis  for/ever  at/tt,   and   I  am  poor  and.  can;^  %t 
not'  furnish  her  with  flax  enough." 
Then  \  answered)  the  Queen^  *'I  like  nothing    ;^  / 
i^AM,/    better  the  sound  of   the  spinning  wheel;  let 

me  take  your  daughter  with  me  to  castle  I  have  ^^^^/./ 
J    plenty  of  flax^  she  shall  spin  there  to  her  neart*8        '  •  / 
content." 
The  mother  was  only  Aerglad  of  the  offer,  and  ^^J 
o^fJ  the  Queea  took  the  girl  with  her.    Whe^the 

'  IliiA/^-rk    cjV» /^XT7£k/l      nai»    4-r\i»ii£i    T»/\rkrMO  Trrnirir*   x%ai^*c^    ¥\\\£^t\ 


Queen  showed  her  three  rooms  which,;8e^  filled 
^  the  finesj,flax  as  full  as  thejj^tSould  hold. 
Now  you  ;e^  spin  me>fcms  flax,"  said  she. 


^/'Or.//mt](  the  finesj,flax  as  full  as  thejj^^uld  hold. 
/       /      '*Now  you  ;e^ spin  me>fcms  flax,"  said  ^^^>''^****^:^^  j 
i55V    and  when  you  can  show  icme  all  done  you  shall      ^      / 
if/    nave  my  eldejft  son  for  bridegroom.    You  may 
X  be  pooi,  but  I  malye  nothing  of  that.    Your     f 
industry  is  dowry  ej^ough." 

iGrimm  Brothers.      JitAJi,/ 


CORRECTING  PROOF  371 

EXERCISE  219 

Point  out  the  errors  in  the  following  mutilated 
extract  from  Irving's  Rip  Van  Winkle,  and  ex- 
plain to  the  class  what  symbols  you  would  use  in 
telling  the  printer  to  correct  these  errors. 

Poor  rip  was  atlast  reduced  almost  to  despair;  and  his 
only  alternative,  to  escape  the  labor  of  the  farm  and  the 
clamor  of  his  wife,  was  to  take  in  hand  his  gun  and  stroll 
away  into  the  woods. 

Here  he  would  sometimes  seat  himself  at  the  foot  of  a 
tree,  and  share  the  contents  of  his  wallet  with  Wolfe,  with 
whom  he  sympathized  as  a  fellow-sufferer  in  persecution. 

"  Poor  Wolf,"  he  would  say  thy  mistress  leads  thee  a 
dogs  life  of  it.  But  never  mind  my  lad,  whilst  I  live  live 
thou  shalst  never  want  a  friend  to  stand  by  thee !  " 

Wolf  would  wag  his  tail,  look  wistfully  in  his  mas- 
ter's face;  And  if  dogs  ca  nfeel  pity,  I  verily  beleavc 
he  reciprocated  the  sentiment  with  all  his  heart. 

EXERCISE  220 

The  following  anecdote  is  taken  from  The 
Youth^s  Companion.  But  many  changes  have 
been  made.  Here  and  there  a  word  has  been  mis- 
spelled or  omitted.  Punctuation-marks  have  been 
removed  or  otherwise  tampered  with.  The  conver- 
sation has  been  printed  solidly;  that  is,  each  remark 
no  longer  appears  as  a  separate  paragraph.  In 
the  original,  the  word  Tribune  Is,  very  properly, 
printed  In  italics;  here  It  Is  In  roman. 

How  would  you  indicate  by  means  of  printer^s 


372 


APPENDIX 


symbols  the  changes  that  should  he  made  to  restore 
this  anecdote  to  its  original  form?  How  would 
you  indicate  that  at  its  head  should  stand  in  large 
capitals  the  title  He  paid  his  debt  promptly? 

A  train  was  just  starting  to  leave  suburban  station  says 
the  New  York  Tribune  when  an  olderly  man  rushed  acrost 
the  platform  and  jumped  on  one  of  slowly  moving  cars 
the  rear  end  brakeman  who  was  standing  by  reached  up 
just  as  the  man  got  abroad  grabbed  his  coat  tails  and 
pulled  him  off  there  he  said  sternly  I  have  saved  your  life ! 
don't  ever  try  to  board  a  train  that  way  again  Thank 
you  said  the  old  man  calmly  thank  you  for  your  thought- 
ful kindness  it  is  three  hours  till  the  next  trane  isent  it 
three  hours  and  a  quarter  said  the  breakman.  But  it 
is  better  to  wait  that  length  of  time  then  be  killed.  The 
long  train,  mean  while  had  been  slowly  gliding  by  slowly 
gathering  Spead.  Finaly  the  last  car  apeared.  This  was 
the  brakeman's  car  the  one  which  he  had  been  waiting 
and  with  the  easy  grace  borne  of  long  practice  he  started 
to  step  magestcly  on  it.  But  the  old  gentleman  siezed 
him  by  the  coat  and  with  a  strong  jerk  pulled  him  back 
and  held  him  until  it  was  too.  One  good  turn  deserves 
another  said  the  old  gentleman  with  a  smile,  you  saved 
my  life  I  have  saved  yours  now  we  arequits. 

EXERCISE  221 

Copy  as  carelessly  as  you  please  any  ten-line 
anecdote  from  The  YoutKs  Companion  or  some 
other  periodical,  then  indicate  by  means  of  print- 
er's symbols  what  corrections  should  be  made  to 
restore  it  to  its  original  form. 


PRECEPT   AND    CRITICISM 

Here  are  fifteen  precepts  having  to  do  for  the 
most  part  with  words  and  sentences,  followed  by 
eighteen  typical  criticisms  such  as  the  instructor 
finds  frequent  occasion  to  use  when  reading  school 
compositions.  It  is  more  agreeable  to  discover 
one's  failings  than  to  have  them  pointed  out.  Be 
your  own  critic. 

1.  Be  sure  that  you  know  the  meaning  of  every 
word  you  use.  When  in  doubt,  consult  a  good  dic- 
tionary.    (See  Chapter  XII.) 

2.  Watch  your  spelling.  Do  not  guess ;  consult 
a  dictionary.  Master  the  rules;  learn  the  Latin 
prefixes.     (See  Chapter  xiv.) 

3.  Keep  your  vocabulary  simple.  Avoid  for- 
eign, provincial,  technical,  and  newly  coined  ex- 
pressions. Other  things  being  equal,  familiar 
words  are  preferable  to  unfamiliar.     (See  Chapter 

XII.) 

4.  Keep  your  vocabulary  pure.  Avoid  col- 
loquial, loose,  and  slangy  expressions.  (See  Chap- 
ter xii.) 

5.  Master  English  grammar.  Learn  thor- 
oughly the  correct  forms  of  the  various  parts  of 

373 


374  APPENDIX 

speech;   obey  the   rules   of  syntax.      (See   Chap- 
ter XV.) 

6.  So  construct  your  sentences  that  the  relation- 
ship of  part  to  part  will  be  seen  at  a  glance.  Place 
modifiers  near  the  words  they  modify;  be  sure  that 
pronouns  have  clearly  defined  antecedents;  avoid 
the  dangling  participle.     ( See  Chapter  xviii. ) 

7.  Learn  to  use  introductory  and  transitional 
words  and  phrases  skillfully.  (See  Chapter 
XVIII.) 

8.  Master  the  rules  of  punctuation.  (See 
Chapter  XIX.) 

9.  Preserve  unity.  Exclude  what  is  irrelevant; 
subordinate  whatever  Is  of  minor  Importance ;  avoid 
parenthetical  expressions.     (See  Chapter  xvii.) 

10.  Preserve  uniformity  in  sentence  design.  Do 
not  yoke  in  parallel  construction  elements  unequal 
in  value  or  unlike  in  form;  avoid  shifting  the  point 
of  view.     (See  Chapter  xvii.) 

1 1 .  Exercise  economy.  Strike  out  useless  words. 
Do  not  give  needless  Information,  nor  say  prac- 
tically the  same  thing  over  and  over.  (See  Chap- 
ters XVIII,  XX.) 

12.  Be  precise.  Choose  your  words  with  care. 
Say  what  you  mean.  (See  Chapter  xx,  Exercises 
188-190.) 

13.  Try  to  make  your  sentences  euphonious — 
agreeable  to  the  ear.  Avoid  harsh  sounds  and 
needless  repetition.     (See  Chapter  xx.) 

14.  Gain  force  through  variety.  Avoid  a 
^ucppssion  of  short  sentences.     Experiment  now 


PRECEPT  AND  CRITICISM  375 

and  then  with  the  interrogative  and  the  exclam- 
atory sentence.  Try  the  balanced  and  the  periodic. 
(See  Chapter  xxi.) 

15.  Do  not  be  afraid  to  use  figurative  language. 
Simile,  metaphor,  and  personification  are  quite  as 
serviceable  in  prose  as  in  poetry.  (See  Chapters 
XXI,  XXII.) 

16.  The  subject  you  have  chosen  is  too  diffi- 
cult. Another  time,  try  something  simpler,  some- 
thing in  which  you  are  more  deeply  interested. 

17.  You  have  not  mastered  your  subject.  One 
cannot  hope  to  write  successfully  except  on  topics 
with  which  he  is  thoroughly  familiar.  Investigate, 
study,  think;  then  write. 

18.  The  subject  you  have  chosen  Is  excellent, 
but  It  is  too  broad.  You  would  have  been  more 
successful  had  you  narrowed  the  field.  It  Is  better 
to  do  a  little  and  do  it  well. 

19.  Your  composition  begins  weakly.  Open- 
ing paragraphs  are  important;  for  If  the  reader  is 
not  pleased  at  the  outset,  he  may  turn  away.  Make 
your  porch  inviting. 

20.  Your  opening  paragraph  Is  too  pre- 
tentious. It  leads  the  reader  to  expect  far  more 
than  you  have  provided.  Nothing  Is  gained  by  a 
false  promise. 

21.  Your  composition  ends  weakly — simply 
dwindles  away.  Last  Impressions  are  so  Important 
that  you  should  try  for  a  more  ef][ective  close.  It 
is  possible,  sometimes,  to  give  In  a  concluding  par- 
agraph the  essence  of  all  that  has  gone  before. 


376  APPENDIX 

Condense,  summarize,  or  at  least  end  with  some- 
thing attractive. 

2  2.  Are  you  sure  that  you  have  taken  up 
the  topics  in  the  best  order?  Follow  a  time  or 
place  sequence  when  possible.  Do  not  mingle 
causes  and  effects.  Often  it  is  possible  to  arrange 
topics  in  climax  order,  or  in  such  manner  as  to 
bring  out  effectively  a  marked  contrast.  It  will  not 
do  to  dash  down  your  thoughts  without  stopping 
to  arrange  them. 

23.  Your  composition  is  poorly  proportioned. 
Here  and  there  a  topic  needs  expanding,  and  in  one 
or  two  places  you  have  dallied  too  long. 

24.  Your  composition  lacks  unity.  It  contains 
fragments  of  several  compositions,  all  tumbled  in 
together. 

25.  How  little  of  yourself  has  gone  into  this 
composition — as  if  you  had  carefully  guarded 
against  revealing  your  emotions !  Yet  it  is  the  per- 
sonal note  that  the  reader  enjoys.  Your  composi- 
tion does  not  sound  like  you.  Be  natural ;  give  vent 
to  your  feelings. 

26.  Your  narrative  contains  too  many  dry  de- 
tails. A  list  of  places  visited,  with  the  hours  of 
arrival  and  departure,  interests  the  reader  but  little ; 
he  does  not  care  for  time-tables.  What  did  you  see 
that  interested  you  greatly?  What  did  you  talk 
about?  Really,  you  have  given  the  reader  little 
more  than  an  empty  shell. 

27.  Your  description  is  methodical  and 
thorough,  you  have  kept  the  point  of  view  very 


PRECEPT  AND  CRITICISM  377 

well ;  but  It  is  photographic.  You  have  forgotten  all 
about  color.  You  have  put  little  of  yourself  Into 
your  paragraphs. 

28.  In  several  places  your  composition  is 
not  clear.  No  doubt  the  thought  Is  plain  to  you, 
but  it  has  not  been  given  clear  expression.  Have 
you  used  words  enough,  sentences  enough?  Have 
you  not  left  gaps  for  the  reader  to  bridge  ? 

29.  The  Ideas  in  this  composition  are  ex- 
cellent, but  they  are  unattractively  expressed.  It 
is  a  pity  that  one  who  has  so  much  that  Is  worth 
communicating  should  be  willing  to  express  him- 
self so  clumsily. 

30.  You  are  inclined  to  be  verbose.  Here 
are  labyrinthine  sentences  which  say  very  little. 
Condense ;  your  readers  have  no  time  to  waste. 

31.  Parts  of  this  composition  are  In  bad 
taste.  Humor  is  excellent;  let  fun  bubble  forth 
whenever  there  is  good  occasion.  But  treat  serious 
matters  seriously.  Above  all,  never  be  coarse  or 
rude. 

32.  This  composition  Is  too  illiterate  to  de- 
serve a  reading.  Here  are  misspelled  words,  errors 
in  grammar,  faulty  punctuation,  and  what  not. 
Rewrite  it  before  any  one  else  sees  it.  Use  a  new 
pen  and  a  clean  blotter. 

33.  Acknowledge  Indebtedness.  Compositions 
based  upon  what  one  has  read  are  entirely  proper; 
but  one  cannot  be  too  careful  in  acknowledging 
whatever  he  has  taken  from  the  printed  page. 
The  best  place  for  such  acknowledgment  is  in  the 
opening  paragraph. 


INDEX 


Adjectives,    162-163 

Adventure,    imaginary,    104 

Adverbs,    177-178 

Allegory,   310 

Alliteration,  353 

And   improperly   used,   218-220 

Argument,    47-55 

Balanced   sentence,   295-296 
Brevity,    283-287 

Can   and  may,   174-175 

Child's    error,    223-228 

Clearness :  through  coherence, 
241-259;  through  punctuation, 
260-282;  through  unity,  230- 
240;  through  precision,  283, 
288-289 

Climax:  in  the  sentence,  296; 
in  the  paragraph,  331 

Coherence,  241-259;  arrange- 
ment of  sentence  elements, 
244-246;  pronoun  and  ante- 
cedent, 246-248 ;  wandering 
participle,  249-250;  necessary 
words  omitted,  250-254;  in- 
troductory   and    link    words, 

254-259 

Colloquial    words,    ill 

Combining  sentences,  221-223, 
234-236,  253-254 

Comparison,  exercises  in,  99 

Conjunctions,  179-180 

Contrast:  in  sentence,  295-296; 
in  paragraph,  331 ;  in  com- 
position, 95-99 

Conversation,   91-92,   228-229 


Debate,   47-55 

Declarative    sentence,    151-152; 

293 
Description,    34-46 
Diary,   93 

Dictionary,    109-119 
Direct   and   indirect   discourse, 

228-229 


Euphony,  283,  289-292 
Exclamatory      sentence, 

152,  293-294 
Exposition,  21-33 


151- 


Fable,   311 
Fairy    tale,    93-94 
Figures     of     speech, 
defined,  3 14-31 5 


305-325 


How  I  feel,  exercise  in  com- 
position,   lOO-IOI 
Hyperbola,  313 

Infinitives  and  participles,  176- 

177,  217 
Interjections,    153 
Interrogative     sentences,     151- 

152,  293-294  ,  , 

Introductory    and    transitional 

words,  243-244,  254-259 
Introductory  paragraphs,  326 
Irony,  313 

Letter- writing :  parts  of  letter 
named,  56-64;  specimen  let- 
ters,  67-75;   tasks,   (/),   74-85 

Link  words,  242-244,  254-259 

Loose  sentences,  295 


379 


38o 


INDEX 


May    and    can,    174-175 
Metaphor,  307-309 
Metonymy,  311 
Miscellaneous       exercises       in 

composition,  95-106 
Modifiers  properly  placed,  240, 

244-246 

Narration,  3-20 
Newly  coined  words,   iio-iii 
Nouns,    156-159;   plurals,    157; 
possessives,   158 

Observing     nature,     exercises, 

105-106 
Obsolete   words,    109 
Onomatopoeia,  354-355 

Parable,  311 

Paragraphs,  326-340 ;  kinds, 
326-327 ;  topical  sentence, 
328;   plans,   329-332 

Parsing,   rules   for,   206-207 

Participles:  definition,  176-177; 
participial  constructions,  217; 
wandering  participles,  249 

Parts  of  speech  defined,  152- 
156 

Periodic  sentence,  295 

Personification,    399-310 

Precept  and  Criticism,  373 

Precision,   283,   288-289 

Prefixes,  Latin,  129-136;  list 
of,,  135-136 

Preliminary  word  to  pupil, 
xi-xiv 

Prepositions,   178-179 

Pronouns,  159-162;  and  ante- 
cedents,   246-248 

Pronunciation,    120-127 

Proof-reading,   367-372 

Provincial  words,   109 

Punctuation,   260-282 

Pupils'  compositions :  Seeing 
the  dog  swim,  13-14;  Excit- 
ing contest,  18-19;  Before 
and  after,  96;  Wet,  101-102; 
Deserted  farmhouse,  336-339 


Repetition :  faulty,  289-292 ;  for 

emphasis,   297 
Reproduction,   exercises   in,  3- 

II 
Rhetoric  in  practice,  215-325 

Sentences :  declarative,  inter- 
rogative, imperative,  exclam- 
atory, 151,  293-294;  simple, 
compound,  complex,  151- 
152;  periodic,  loose,  balanced, 
295-296;  topical,  328;  care- 
ful arrangement  of  elements 
in,  241-246;  variety  in  struc- 
ture,   293-304 

Shall ,  and    will,    171-172 

Should  and  would,   175-176 

Simile,   305-307 

Slang,    III,  308 

Soliloquy,  92 

Spelling,  128-149;  rules  for, 
149 

Story-telling   exercises   m,   86- 

94 
Subordination    in    sentence 

building,  218-223 
Substitution    and    combination, 

215-229 
Sufiixes,    136-138 
Summary,  paragraph,  326-328 
Synonyms,  288-289 
Syntax,  rules  of,   181-182 

Technical  words,   no 
Transitional      words      and 

phrases,      242-244,      254-259 ; 

paragraph,  326-328 

Uniformity  in  sentence  struc- 
ture, 231-232,  236-240 

Unity,  clearness  through,  230- 
240 

Unusual  arrangement,  force 
through,    297-298 

Variety  in  sentence  structure, 
293-304 


INDEX 


38i 


Verbs,  164-177;  strong  and 
weak,  165;  principal  parts, 
192-193;  was  and  were,  171, 
173;  shall  and  will,  171-172; 
can  and  may,  174-175;  should 
and  would,  175-176 

Versification,  343-365 ;  terms 
defined,  356-358 


Was  and  were,  171,  173 
Words :  obsolete,  provincial, 
technical,  newly  coined,  col- 
loquial, 109 -hi;  word- 
building  and  spelling,  128- 
149;  too  few,  250-254;  un- 
necessary,  284-287 


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